part 7 – bharatuntoldstory

History of South India – Part 7: The Pallava Empire

Pallavas ruled regions of northern Tamil Nadu and southern Andhra Pradesh between the 2nd and 9th centuries CE. The Pallavas gained prominence after the eclipse of the Satavahana dynasty, whom the Pallavas served as feudatories. A number of legends are associated with the origin of the Pallavas. The Pallavas find no mention as rulers of Tamil regions during the period when the Three Crowned Kings (Tamil: மூவேந்தர், Mūvēntar), namely, the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas, warred against each other and sought control of Chola Nadu, Chera Nadu and Pandya Nadu which made up the ancient Tamil country, Tamilakam. Some details of Pallava kings are found in the Sangam Period classics Ahananuru, Manimekhalai and Perumbanarruppatai. It is generally believed by many experts that the Pallavas were Kurumbar/Kurubas.

Traditionally Kanchi is considered to be the homeland of Pallavas, as though they asserted themselves on the collapse of the Satavahana power, they never had or moved the capital into the old Satavahana states, and might have annexed a part of Chola territory by 250 C.E. Tamil literature relates the story of Chola King Killivalavan who moved his capital to Uraiyar after the destruction of the Chola capital of Puhar. Mudaliyar C. Rasanayagam of Colombo claims that Killi Valavan had a liaison with the daughter of Naga king Valaivanam of Manipallavanam (in Jaffna peninsula) in Ceylon. From this union was born a child who was named Tondaiman Ilantirayan whom his father, Killi Valavan, made the ruler of a territory which was named Tondamandalam with capital at Kanchi. It is pointed out that name Pallava derives from the last syllable of Manipallavanam .

The Pallavas were in conflict with major kingdoms at various periods of time. A contest for political supremacy existed between the early Pallavas and the Kadambas. Numerous Kadamba inscriptions provide details of Pallava-Kadamba hostlities. The Pallavas also contracted matrimonial relationships with Kadambas. According to the Velurpalaiyam Plates the mother of the Pallava king Nandivarman was a Kadamba princess named Aggalanimmati. The Velurpalaiyam Plates also state that Nandivarman had to fight for his father’s throne.

During the reign of Vishnugopavarman II (approx. 500-525 CE), political convulsion engulfed the Pallavas due to the Kalabhra invasion of the Tamil country. Towards the close of the 6th century, the Pallava Simhavishnu stuck a blow against the Kalabhras. The Pandyas followed suit. Thereafter the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas in the north with Kanchipuram as their capital, and Pandyas in the south with Madurai as their capital.

After the Kalabhra upheaval the long struggle between the Pallavas and Chalukyas of Badami for supremacy in peninsular India began. Both tried to establish control over the Krishna-Tungabhadra doab. Under Skandavarman I, the Pallavas extended their dominions north to the Krishna River and west to the Arabian Sea. Although the Chalukya ruler Pulakeshin II almost reached the Pallava capitalm his second invasion ended in failure. The Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman occupied Vatapi, defeated the Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras. The Gupta King, Samudragupta led an expedition to the south, travelling through the forest tracts of Madhya Pradesh to Orissa, Vishakapatnam, Godavari, Krishna and Nellore district, and intruding into Kanchi the capital of the Pallavas. Retreating into their homeland of Nellore and Guntur for a while the Pallavas returned to Kanchi with renewed vigor. They then ruled with Kanchipuram as their capital uninterrupted until hostilities with Chalukyas surfaced.

The conflict between Pallavas and Chalukyas resumed in the first half of the 8th century with multiple Pallava setbacks. The Chalukyas overrun them completely in 740 CE, ending the Pallava supremacy in South India

The royal custom of using a series of descriptive honorific titles, birudas, was particularly prevalent among the Pallavas. The birudas of Mahendravarman I are in Sanskrit, Tamil and Telugu. The Telugu birudas show Mahendravarman’s involvement with the Andhra region continued to be strong at the time he was creating his cave-temples in the Tamil region. The suffix “Malla” was used by the Pallava rulers. Mahendravarman I used the biruda, Satrumalla, “a warrior who overthrows his enemies”, and his grandson Paramesvara I was called Ekamalla “the sole warrior or wrestler”. Pallavas kings, persumably exalted ones, were known by their title, Mahamalla or the “great wrestler”.

All the early Pallava royal inscriptions are either in Prakrit or in Sanskrit language, considered the official languages of the dynasty while the official script was Pallava grantha. Similarly, inscriptions found in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka State are in Prakrit and not in Telugu or Kannada. The phenomenon of using Prakrit and Sanskrit as official languages in which rulers left their inscriptions and epigraphies continued till the 6th century CE. It would have been in the interest of the ruling elite to protect their privileges by perpetuating their hegemony of Prakrit in order to exclude the common people from sharing power (Mahadevan 1995a: 173-188). The Pallavas in their Tamil country also adopted the same method. They used Sanskrit language and Pallava grantha scripts in their official orders.

The earliest copper-plate muniment (legal document) so far discovered in India, is by the Pallavas at an early undated time. This document was the renewal of a previous grant of a garden made by an earlier king Bappa, to twenty Brahman families of the Atreya, Harita, Bhradvaja, Kausika, Kasyapa, and Vatsya gotras, who were settled in Southern India around the date of this grant. The grant mentions certain specified shares for the Brahmans, and free from all taxes ; to which was now added a new grant of a piece of land in a neighbouring village for a threshing-floor, and of another piece for house-sites, together also with four cultivating labourers, and two other agricultural serfs attached to the soil. This endowment was created for the increase of the merit, longevity, power, and fame of the donor’s family and race.

The grant was issued from Kanchipura, and it was dated on the fifth day of the sixth fortnight of the rainy season in the eight year of the donor’s reign. The grant was made by the Pallava king Sivaskanda-varman, who is mentioned as a member of the spiritual guild of rishi Bharadvaja, and an offerer of the Agnishtoma, Vajapeya, and Asvamedha vedic sacrifices.

Pallava power was well established at the time when Sivaskanda-varman is styled ” supreme king of great kings,“ a title which implies paramount authority over other rulers subject to him ; and the circumstance of his having offered the horse-sacrifice, which indicates his own personal appreciation of his great power. His predecessor, immediate or otherwise, King Bappa, was wealthy enough to make donations to Brahmans of a 100,000 Ox ploughs, whatever the multiple of exaggeration may be, and many millions of gold coin.

Tho Pallava king was assisted in his government by ‘ministers” of state and “privy councillors”; and his throne was surrounded by “royal princes.” As can be ascertained from the terms of Professor Buhler’s translation, they embraced “countries” governed by “prefects” distributed into “provinces” administered by their “lords,” and subdivided into “districts” under the superintendence of their “rulers”. Their fiscal arrangements included “custom houses” and “officers” of customs, and “spies” or itinerant superintendents of revenue. They had also some kind of forest department with its staff of “foresters.” They maintained a standing army, the brigades of which were commanded by “generals,” and its minor groups of rank and file had their non-commissioned officers or “naicks”.

Their village lands were occupied by ryots who paid “eighteen kinds” of contributions to the crown, partly in kind and partly in money (“taxes”). Amongst those which were paid in kind were “sweet and sour milk”, “grass and wood” and “vegetables and flowers”. They had to plough the crown (state) lands by turns with their “oxen in succession,” and it was a part of their obligation to keep the roads and irrigation works in repair by a system of “forced labour”. Salt and sugar were royal monopolies; and these not infrequently involved the ryots in “troubles”.

The crown had the power to confer grants of land for religious uses, for “the increase of the merit, longevity, power, and fame of his own family and race,” and to exempt the grantees and their grant-lands from the payment of the customary taxes. When such land-grants were made, the agricultural “labourers,” and the “kolikas” or village staff, were transferred with the land. These “labourers” received for their remuneration “half the produce,” according to the system of varam

Pallava royal lineages were established in the old kingdom of Kedah of the Malay Peninsula under Rudravarman I, Chenla under Bhavavarman I, Champa under Bhadravarman I and the Kaundinya-Gunavarman line of the Funan in Cambodia, eventually their rule growing to form the Khmer Empire. These dynasties’ unique Dravidian architectural style was introduced to build Angor Wat while Tamil cultural norms spread across the continent, their surviving epigraphic inscriptions recording domestic societal life and their pivotal role in Asian trade routes.

Direct extensive contacts with these regions were maintained from the maritime commerce city Mamallapuram, where Mahendravarman I and his son “Mahamalla” Narasimhavarman I built the Shore Temple of the Seven Pagodas of Mahabalipuram.

Pallavas were followers of Hinduism and made gifts of land to gods and Brahmins. In line with the prevalent customs, some of the rulers performed the Aswamedha and other Vedic sacrifices.[26] They were, however, tolerant of other faiths. The Chinese monk Xuanzang who visited Kanchipuram during the reign of Narasimhavarman I reported that there were 100 Buddhist monasteries, and 80 temples in Kanchipuram.

Mahendravarman I was initially a patron of the Jain faith. He later converted to Hinduism under the influence of the Saiva saint Appar with the revival of Hinduism during the Bhakti movement in South India.

The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram built by Narasimhavarman IIThe Pallavas were instrumental in the transition from rock-cut architecture to stone temples. The earliest examples of Pallava constructions are rock-cut temples dating from 610–690 CE and structural temples between 690–900 CE. A number of rock-cut cave temples bear the inscription of the Pallava king, Mahendravarman I and his successors.

The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut temples at Mahabalipuram. There are excavated pillared halls and monolithic shrines known as rathas in Mahabalipuram. Early temples were mostly dedicated to Shiva. The Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram and the Shore Temple built by Narasimhavarman II, rock cut temple in Mahendravadi by Mahendravarman are fine examples of the Pallava style temples. The temple of Nalanda Gedige in Kandy, Sri Lanka is another. The famous Tondeswaram temple of Tenavarai and the ancient Koneswaram temple of Trincomalee were patronized and structurally developed by the Pallavas in the 7th century.

SUPERSTITIONS OR DEFINITE SCIENTIFIC THEORIES[part 7]?

16)We all know, Indian women wear bangles, bindi, payal and earrings commonly and especially after marriage. These days, in the era of fashion and miniaturization everything has changed w.r.t. traditional makeup. The size of bangles, bindi, payal, mangalsootra and earrings have substantially reduced from what they were in the initial days of civilization. We can still see those sizes in some of our mythological TV serials and also some of the tribes and regions of Rajasthan, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. Women used to wear big, solid silver ‘kadaas’ in their leg and silver or gold ‘Kadaas’ in their hands. The size of bindis was also not this small, it was quite big so as to cover the entire ‘third eye’ area on the forehead, just above the mid point of the two eyebrows. You can still see Brinda Karat and Krishna Teerath wearing such big bindis. Similarly the earrings and the mangalsootras were also big and heavy of solid gold not like the ones in practice these days.

The bangles or the ‘kadaas’ are worn in hands and it continuously applies pressure on the point as depicted in the figure abov:

The payal or the ‘kadaas’ are worn in legs and it continuously applies pressure on the points as shown in the figure above:

The ‘mangalsootras’ are worn in neck and it continuously applies pressure on the points as shown in the figure above:

Similarly the ‘bindis’ apply pressure on the third eye area and earrings are worn by getting the ears pierced in the ear lobe area.

Now all these pressure points are the points which when pressed increases fertility both in men and women. These pressure points are used in Acupressure therapy these days to treat fertility related problems in the entire world.

Most of these ornaments are used by Indian women after marriage and the sole purpose of the establishment of marriage institution was child birth and survival of the human race. Probably this was the reason our rishis and thinkers again associated these ornaments with high dignity and made people feel it to be auspicious, pious and Godly. This tradition of ours is only symbolic mark of a rich tradition now and has lost its significance in today’s world of fashion and the mad race of looking beautiful by compromising on its health benefits.

It is now well known that Muslim appeasement was an inseparable part of Gandhi’s quack doctrine of Non-violence. But many do not know why he, while he was in South Africa, adopted, or compelled to adopt this dirty policy in 1908. At that time the South African government imposed an unjust tax of £ 3 on every Indian living in South Africa and Gandhi initiated talks with South African government on this matter. But the Muslims did not support this move and were displeased with Gandhi. In addition to that Gandhi, in one occasion, made some critical comments on Islam while he was speaking at a gathering. Furthermore, he tried to make a comparative estimate of Hinduism, Islam and Christianity, which made the Muslims furious.
A few days later, on 10th February 1908, a group of Muslims under the leadership of a Pathan called Mir Alam entered Gandhi’s house and beat him mercilessly. When Gandhi fell on the ground the Muslim attackers kicked him right and left and beat him with sticks. They also threatened to kill him. From this incident onward, Gandhi stopped to make any critical comment on Muslims as well as on Islam. According to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, this incident was a milestone in Gandhi’s life and afterwards Gandhi began to over look even the most heinous crime committed by the Muslims.

An example would help the reader to understand the matter. On 23rd December 1926, a Muslim assassin called Abdul Rashid stabbed Swami Shraddhananda to death, when the Swami was ill and lying on his bed. The reader may recall that Swami Shraddhananda was a pracharak (whole time worker) of Arya Samaj and he started a Suddhi Yajna to bring the converted Muslims of this country back to Hinduism. It should also be mentioned here that, when his eldest son Hiralal converted to Islam, he reconverted him to Hinduism with the help of Swami Shraddhananda.

But his activities were detested by the Muslims. A couple of months earlier a Muslim woman came to the Swami and expressed her desire to return to Hinduism with her children. However her husband brought an allegation of abduction in the court of law against the Swami. But the court quashed the allegation and set the Swami free. The incident turned the Muslims extremely furious and within a few days Abdul Rashid assassinated him.

After a few days of this incident, Gandhi went to Gauhati to deliver his speech at the national conference of Indian National Congress. The atmosphere was depressed and gloomy due to unusual death of Shraddhananda. But Gandhi made everyone dumbfounded and began his speech by addressing the assassin Abdul Rashid as “Bhai Abdul Rashid”. Without caring for the reaction of the listeners, he continued, “Now you will perhaps understand why I have called Abdul Rashid a brother, and I repeat it. I do not even regard him as guilty of Swami’s murder. Guilty indeed are those who excited feeling of hatred against one another.” Thus he indirectly held Swami Shraddhananda responsible for his murder, as he was propagating hatred through his Suddhi Yajna. Moreover, he wrote in the obituary note, “He (the Swami) lived a hero. He died a hero.”

In other words, if a Hindu falls victim to the knife of a Muslim’s assassin, Hindus should consider it a heroic death. It should be pointed out here that the said policy of Muslim appeasement originated by Gandhi, under the garb of (pseudo) secularism was responsible for the Partition of the country in 1947. Many of our countrymen, still today, firmly believe that Gandhi was against partition as in the public meetings, he used to say, “Vivisect me, before you vivisect India”.

When he was saying this in public meetings, he was expressing just the opposite view through his writings. The reader may recall that, on March 26, 1940, the leaders of the Muslim League raised the issue of creation of Pakistan as a separate homeland for them. Hardly a couple of weeks later, supporting demand, Gandhi wrote, “Like other groups of people in this country, Muslims also have the right of self determination. We are living here as a joint family and hence any member has the right to get separated.” (Harijan, April 6, 1940). A couple of years later, he also wrote, “If majority of the Muslims of this country maintain that they are a different nation and there is nothing common with the Hindus and other communities, there is no force on the earth that can alter their view. And if on that basis, they demand partition that must be carried out. If Hindus dislike it, they may oppose it”, (Harijan, April 18, 1942).

The reader should also recall that the Congress Working Committee, in its session on June 12, 1947, decided to place the partition issue before the All India Congress Committee (AICC) for a debate and consequently, the AICC approved the issue in its session held on June 14-15, 1947. In the beginning of the debate, veteran Congress leaders like Purusottamdas Tandon, Govindaballav Panth, Chaitram Gidwani and Dr S Kichlu etc. placed their very convincing speeches against the motiom. Then Gandhi, setting aside all other speakers, spoke for 45 minutes supporting partition.

The main theme of his deliberation was that, if Congress did not accept partition (1) other group of people or leaders would avail the opportunity and throw the Congress out of power and (2) a chaotic situation would prevail throughout the country. Many believe that, in the name of other leaders, he pointed to Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, and in the name of ‘chaotic condition’, he tacitly asked the Muslims to begin countrywide communal riot, if the Congress did not accept the partition. Till then, Sardar Ballavbhat Patel was on the fence regarding the partition issue. But Gandhi’s speech turned him into a firm supporter of partition and he influenced other confused members to support the motion. In this way, Congress approved the partition issue (History of Freedom Movement in India, R C Majumdar, Vol-III, p-670).

pic: mughal gardens

The last Shahmiri ruler, Sultan Habib Shah, a weakling was deposed by his commander, and nobles raised on throne Gazi Chak, a prominent military General of the time. He was the direct descendant of Lankar Chak who had come to Kashmir towards the close of Hindu rule. The Chak rule began in Kashmir in 1561 and lasted till 1587, when Akbar, the great Moghul Emperor conquered Kashmir.

Moghul Period:-

The Moghuls remained in power here, from 1587 to 1752, and in this period undoubtedly the people enjoyed peace and orderly Govt. There were some rapacious officers, but on the complaint of the people the Moghul rulers immediately removed them. It was in 1579 that illuminated Moghul emperor Akbar visited Kashmir. About eighty thousand Kashmiris were entertained by Akbar at Id-Gah. During his reign Raja Todar Mal, the great Finance and Revenue Minister, made revenue settlement of the valley, which in its broad features forms the basis of the present revenue settlement in the valley. Akbar built a new town near Hariparbat and called it Nagar-Magar and built the massive wall around the hill. The great emperor visited the valley three times, and with him, came a large number of Moghul grandees, noblemen and army generals. The fame of the valley spread throughout the country and a very large number of people started to visit the valley. But actually it was in the time of Jahangir that the beauty of the state attracted thousands of visitors to the happy valley. The great emperor visited the State thirteen times. The Moghul rulers never came alone, but were always accompanied by hundreds of Nobles, Amirs and Umras, Princes and Army Generals. Jahangir came virtually, under the spell of the scenic beauty of the place, and wherever he found a hill coming down gently to a spring or a grove of majestic Chinar trees or a beautiful lake, he utilised the place for planting a pleasure garden. Shalimar and Nishat gardens on the banks of Dal Lake, would keep Jahangir’s love for natural beauty ever fresh in our memory. He laid gardens at Achable and Verinag. Perhaps no other ruler has ever paid so much tribute to the beauty of Kashmir as Jahangir did.
Shah Jahan also visited the happy valley a number of times and he too was accompanied by a large number of nobles. Owing to the long peaceful rule of the three Moghul Kings, hundreds of people now began to come to Kashmir to find mental peace, to regain their health or attain spiritual salvation. Shah Jahan laid the garden of Chashmashai and also built a portion of Shalimar. The Moghul Governor Ali Marden Khan also laid out a number of gardens. Aurangzeb visited Kashmir only once in 1665. An interesting account of the emperor’s journey to the valley has been given by a French traveller Francis Bernier who accompanied the Emperor. The traveller gives a favourable impression of the people in his book. “The Kashmiris are celebrated for wit. In poetry and sciences they are not inferior to Persians. They are also active and industrious. The workmanship, and beauty of their Palkies, bed steads, inkstand, axes, spoons and various other things are quite remarkable, and articles of their manufacture are in use in every part of India. They perfectly understand the art of varnishing, and are eminently skilful in closely imitating the beautiful veins of a certain wood, by inlaying with gold threads so delicately wrought, that never saw anything more elegant or perfect. But what may be considered peculiar to Kashmir and the staple commodity, that which particularly promotes the trade of the country, and fills it with wealth, is the prodigious quantity of shawls which they manufacture, and which gives occupation to her children.”

Aurangezeb’s reign was a signal for revolts and rebellions in several parts of the country. In distant parts of the empire commenced an era of lawlessness, anarchy and disorder. Many states became independent under their subedhars who founded new independent states. A reign of disorder also started in Kashmir. The Moghul Governors began to loot and plunder the people, and at the same time ruthlessly started a policy of religious bigotry and fanaticism. There was absolute chaos in northern India after the invasion of Nadir Shah of Persia. The people of Kashmir could no longer tolerate the misrule of Moghul satraps, and accordingly when Ahmad Shah Abdali of Kabul was at Lahore in 1752, two Kashmir nobleman Mir Muquim Kant and Khwaj’a Zahir Didmari, waited upon him at Lahore, and disgracefully requested him to bring Kashmir under his control.