History of South India – Part 8: The Kadamba Dynasty

Kadamba Dynasty, Kadambas of Banavasi (Kannada: ಕದಂಬರು) (345 – 525 CE) was an ancient royal family of Karnataka, India that ruled northern Karnataka and the Konkan from Banavasi in present day Uttara Kannada district. At the peak of their power under King Kakushtavarma, Kadambas of Banavasi they ruled large parts of Karnataka state. The dynasty was founded by Mayurasharman in 345 CE which at times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions, an indication to which is provided by the titles and epithets assumed by its rulers. King Mayurasharman defeated the armies of Pallavas of Kanchi possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule of Kakusthavarma, a powerful ruler with whom even the kings of Gupta Dynasty of northern India cultivated marital alliances. Tiring of the endless battles and bloodshed, one of the later descendants, King Shivakoti adopted Jainism. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the Western Ganga Dynasty and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires for over five hundred years during which time they branched into Goa and Hanagal.

During the pre-Kadamba era the ruling families that controlled Karnataka, the Mauryas, Satavahanas and Chutus were not natives of the region and the nucleus of power resided outside present day Karnataka. The Kadambas were the first indigenous dynasty to use Kannada, the language of the soil at an administrative level. In the history of Karnataka, this era serves as a broad based historical starting point in the study of the development of region as an enduring geo-political entity and Kannada as an important regional language.

There is no shortage of myths about the origin of the Kadambas. According to one account the dynasty was founded by one Trilochana Kadamba also known from the Halsi and Degamve records as Jayanta who had three eyes and four arms. He was born out of the sweat of Shiva, which had fallen under a Kadamba tree and hence his name Kadamba. According to another myth, Mayurasharma himself was born to Lord Shiva and mother earth and had three eyes.  According to Grama Paddhati, a Kannada work dealing with the history of the Tulu Brahmanas, Mayurasharma was born to Lord Shiva and goddess Parvathi under a Kadamba tree in the Sahyadri mountains and hence the name Kadamba. An inscription of the Nagarakhanda Kadambas, a later descendent dynasty, gives a legendary account and traces their lineage back to the Nandas. According to the inscription, King Nanda who had no heir prayed to Lord Shiva in the Kailash mountains when a heavenly voice advised him that two sons would be born to him, would bear the name of Kadamba Kula (family) and they should be instructed in the use of weapons.

There are two theories to the origin of the Kadamba dynasty, a native Kannadiga origin and the other a north Indian origin. Mention of the north Indian origin of the Kadambas are only found in their later records of their offshoot descendent dynasty and is considered legendary. The earliest record making this claim is the 1053 and 1055 inscriptions of Harikesari Deva which are copied in inscriptions thereafter, describing Mayurasharma as the progenitor of the kingdom who established his might on the summit of Mount Himavat. But this theory has not found popularity as there is no indication of this account in any of their early records. On the contrary, the family derives its name from the Kadamba tree that is common only to the South India region.

Historians are divided on the issue of the caste of the Kadamba family, whether the founders of the kingdom belonged to the Brahmin caste as claimed by the Talagunda inscription, or were of tribal origin. A claim has been made that the Kadambas were none other than a tribe called the Kadambu, who were in conflict with the Chera kingdom (of modern Tamil Nadu – Kerala region). The ‘Kadambus’ find mention in the Tamil Sangam literature as totemic worshippers of the Kadambu tree and the Hindu god Subramanya.  While some historians have argued that they being of Brahmin descent made Mayurasharma’s ancestors natives of northern India, the counter argument is that it was common for Dravidian peoples to be received into the Brahmanic caste during early and later medieval times. Being native Kannadigas, the Kadambas promptly gave administrative and political importance to their language, Kannada, after coming to power. It is thus claimed that the family of the Kadambas were undoubtedly of Kanarese descent and may have been admitted into the Brahminical caste. The Naga descent of the Kadambas has been stated in early inscriptions of King Krishna Varma I too, which confirms the family was from present day Karnataka

Inscriptions in Sanskrit and Kannada are the main sources of the Kadamba history. The Talagunda, Gundanur, Chandravalli, Halasi and Halmidi inscription are some of the important inscriptions that throw light on this ancient ruling family of Karnataka.They belonged to the Manavya Gotra and were Haritiputras (lineage), which connects them to the native Chutus of Banavasi, a feudatory of the Satavahana empire. Inscriptions of the Kadambas in Kannada and Sanskrit ascribed to the main dynasty and branch kingdoms have been published by historians. The Kadambas minted coins with Nagari, Kannada and Grantha legends which provide additional numismatic evidence of their history.

Kadambas were the first rulers to use Kannada as an additional official administrative language, as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription of 450. Three Kannada inscriptions from their early rule from Banavasi have been discovered.  Several early Kadamba dynasty coins bearing the Kannada inscription Vira and Skandha was found in Satara collectorate. A gold coin of King Bhagiratha (390–415 CE) bearing the old Kannada legend Sri and Bhagi also exists. Recent discovery of 5th century Kadamba copper coin in Banavasi with Kannada script inscription Srimanaragi on it proves the usage of Kannada at the administrative level further.

One of their earliest inscriptions, the Talagunda inscription of Santivarma (450) gives what may be the most possible cause for the emergence of the Kadamba kingdom. It states that Mayura sharma was a native of Talagunda, (in present day Shimoga district) and his family got its name from the Kadamba tree that grew near his home. The inscription narrates how Mayurasharma proceeded to Kanchi in 345 along with his guru and grandfather Veerasarma to pursue his Vedic studies at a Ghatika (school). There, owing to some misunderstanding between him and a Pallava guard or at an Ashvasanstha (a place of horse sacrifice), a quarrel arose in which Mayurasharma was humiliated. In high rage, the Brahmana discontinued his studies, left Kanchi, swearing vengeance on the impudent Pallavas, and took to arms. He collected a faithful group of followers and routed the Pallava armies near Srisilam region. After a prolonged period of low intensity warfare against the Pallavas and other smaller kings such as the Brihad-Banas of Kolar region, he proclaimed independence. Unable to contain him, the Pallavas had to accept his sovereignty. Thus in an act of righteous indignation was born the first native kingdom of Karnataka, the Pallava King Skandavarman condescending to recognise the growing might of the Kadambas south of the Malaprabha river as a sovereign power. Mayurasharma availed himself of the confusion that was created by the invasion of Samudragupta who,in his Allahabad Inscription,claims to have defeated, among others,Vishnugopa of Kanchi. Taking advantage of the weakening of the Pallava power, Mayura appears to have succeeded in establishing a new kingdom. The fact that Mayurasharma had to travel to distant Kanchi for Vedic studies gives an indication that Vedic lore was quite rudimentary in the region at that time. The recently discovered Gudnapur inscription states that Mauryasharma’s grandfather and preceptor was Virasarma and his father Bandhushena developed the character of a Kshatriya.

Mayurasharma’s successor was his son Kangavarma who had to fight the Vakataka might to protect Kuntala. He was defeated by Vakataka Prithvisena but managed to maintain his freedom. His son Bhagiratha is said to have retrieved his fathers losses but Vakataka inscriptions do not attest to this. His son Raghu died fighting the Pallavas. He was succeeded by his brother Kakusthavarma who was the most ferocious and powerful ruler of the kingdom. He maintained marital relations with even the imperial Guptas of the north, according to the Talagunda inscription. One of his daughters was married to Kumara Gupta’s son Skanda Gupta. His other daughter was married to a Vakataka king Narendrasena. He maintained similar relations with the Bhatari, the Alupas of South Canara and the Western Ganga Dynasty of Gangavadi according to the Talagunda inscription. The great poet Kalidasa had visited his court.

After Kakusthavarma only Ravivarma who came to the throne in 485 AD was able to build upon the kingdom. His rule was marked by a series of clashes within the family, and also against the Pallavas and the Gangas. He is also credited with a victory against the Vakatakas, which extended his Kingdom as far north as the river Narmada. The crux of their kingdom essentially consisted of most of Karnataka, Goa and southern areas of present day Maharashtra. After his death, the kingdom went into decline due to family feuds. The Triparvatha branch that broke away ruled from Murod in Belgavi for some time and merged with the main Banavasi kingdom during rule of Harivarma. Finally the kingdom fell to the prowess of the Badami Chalukyas. The Kadambas thereafter became feudatories of the Badami Chalukyas and later the Rashtrakutas and Kalyani Chalukyas. The successors of Mayurasharma took to the name “varma” to indicate their Kshatriya status.

Although the Kadamba dynasty has been known from over 50 inscriptions, no coins had been firmly attributed to them until recently. However, coins of these kings came to light for the first time in 2006, when a hoard of coins was discovered, mostly coins of a lesser branch of the Satavahanas, who had ruled in the Banavasi area, a few coins of the Chutus, and Kadamba coins. They have been definitively attributed to the Kadambas because they not only have various Kadamba symbols, such as conches and chakras, but one of the epithets on the coins, sri dosharashi, is known from inscriptions to have been used by the Kadamba king Krishnavarma II (ruled 516-540). Other coins with the legend Sri Manarashi were also found, along with anepigraphic coins (that is, coins without any legends) featuring flowers, chakras, and conches. The lotus, chakra (discus), and conch are all symbols of the god Vishnu. Kadamba inscriptions frequently invoke Vishnu, indicating they must have been devotees of this deity. The identity of the king named Sri Manarashi has still not been determined.

The coins are perhaps the earliest ones to use Kannada letters, a confirmation that the Kadambas were the first ruling dynasty indigenous to Karnataka

The Kadamba kings called themselves Dharmamaharajas like the Satavahana kings. Dr. Mores has identified various cabinet and other positions in the kingdom from inscriptions. The prime minister (Pradhana), Steward (Manevergade), secretary of council (Tantrapala or Sabhakarya Sachiva), scholarly elders (Vidyavriddhas), physician (Deshamatya), private secretary (Rahasyadhikritha), chief secretary (Sarvakaryakarta), chief justice (Dharmadhyaksha) and other officials (Bhojaka and Ayukta). The army consisted of officers like Jagadala, Dandanayaka and Senapathi.

The Kadambas were followers of Vedic Hinduism. The founder, Mayurasharma was a Brahmin by birth but later his successors changed their surname to Varma to indicate their Kshatriya status. Some Kadamba kings like Krishna Varma performed the horse sacrifice (Ashwamedha). Their Talagunda inscription starts with an invocation of Lord Shiva while the Halmidi and Banavasi inscriptions start with an invocation of Lord Vishnu. They built the Madhukesvara temple which is considered their family deity. Many records like the Kudalur, Sirsi records speak of grants made by them to scholarly Brahmins. Grants were also made to Buddhist viharas.

The Kadambas also patronised Jainism; several of the latter kings adopted the religion, and built numerous Jain Basadis (temples) that are scattered around Banavasi, Belgavi, Mangaluru and Goa. Kings and Queens of the dynasty were renowned for their support of literature, arts and liberal grants to temples and educational institutions. Several descendants are scattered around present day Goa, Belgavi, Mangaluru and Bengaluru. Adikavi Pampa highly spoke of this kingdom in his writings.

Kadamba shikara (tower) with Kalasa (pinnacle) on top, Doddagaddavalli. The contribution of the Kadambas to the architectural heritage of Karnataka is certainly worthy of recognition. The Kadamba style can be identified and that it has a few things in common with the Chalukya and the Pallava styles. The most prominent feature of their architecture, basic as it was is their Shikara called Kadamba Shikara. The Shikara is pyramid shaped and rises in steps without any decoration with a Stupika or Kalasha at the top. This style of Shikara are used several centuries later in the Doddagaddavalli Hoysala temple and the Mahakuta temples in Hampi. Some of their temples also use perforated screen windows. It has also been pointed out that in architecture and sculpture, the Kadambas contributed to the foundation of the later Chalukya-Hoysala style.

The Madhukeshwara (Lord Shiva) temple built by them still exists in Banavasi. Built in 10th century and renovated many times, the temple is a very good piece of art. The stone cot with wonderful carvings is one of the main tourist attractions in the temple.

History of South India – Part 5: Kingdoms of the Sangam Period – The Chera Dynasty

Chēra dynasty, ruling from before the Sangam Age (3rd century BC — 3rd century AD) until the 12th century AD, is one of the most ancient ruling dynasties in India. Together with the Chōlas and the Pāndyas, they formed the three principal warring southern kingdoms in the early centuries of the Common Era known collectively as Three Crowned Kings. They are also referred to as Keralaputras (sons of Kerala) or Keralas. The Cheras were in continuous conflict with neighboring Cholas and Pandyas. Some Chera rules are said to have defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas and their ally states. They also made battles with the Kadambās of Banavasi and the “Yavanas” (Romans) on the Indian coast.

During the time of Mauryas in northern India (c. 4th century BC — 3rd century BC) the Cheras (along with the Pandyas and the Cholas) were in a late megalithic phase on the western coast of ancient Tamil land. The cultural exchange with the northern India and the flourishing trade with the Roman Empire later contributed to the state formation. The kingdom, at its zenith, spread over most of the modern day Kerala and Coimbatore, Salem and Dharmapuri districts of modern day Tamil Nadu. Some records suggest the possible annexation of Nagapattanam (southern part) and Thiruvarur districts of Tamil Nadu.  The Tamil poetic collection called Sangam literature describes a long line of Chera rulers. It records the names of the kings and the princes, and of the court poets who extolled them. Uthiyan Cheralathan, Nedum Cheralathan, Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttuvan, Narmudi Cheral, Selva Kadumko Valiathan, Senguttuvan Chera, Perum Cheral Irumporai, Illam Cheral Irumporai are some of the rulers referred in the Sangam poems. Senguttuvan Chera, the most celebrated and powerful Chera king is famous for the legends surrounding Kannagi, the heroine of the legendary Tamil epic Silapathikaram.

After second century AD, the Chera power decayed rapidly with the decline of the lucrative trade with the Romans. The domination of first Chera dynasty lasted till circa 5th century AD.  The Later Cheras ruled from the 9th century. Little is known about the Cheras between the two dynasties. The second dynasty, Kulasekharas ruled from a city on the banks of River Periyar called Mahodayapuram (Kodungallur). Though never, regained the old status in the Peninsula, Kulasekharas fought numerous wars with their powerful neighbors and diminished to history in 12th century as a result of continuous Chola and Rashtrakuta invasions.

Decline of Early Cheras

Kalabhras controlled large parts of southern India in the 5th and 6th centuries AD. The fourth and fifth centuries witnessed the decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire. Also in the post-Sangam, the Chera kingdom was invaded by a number of northern powers. A Kadamba record of the 5th century at the Edakkal cave in Wayanad bears testimony to the Kadamba presence in the deep south. Chera Kingdom seems to have affected by the Kalabhra upheaval in the 5th and 6th centuries AD. According to Buddhist works, Kalabhra ruler Achuta Vikkanta kept the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers in his confinement and established control over large portion of southern India. The Kalabhras were defeated around the 6th century with the revival of Pallava and Pandya power.

The Chalukyas of Badami must have conducted temporary conquests of Malabar. An inscription of King Pulakesin I claims that he conquered the Chera ruler. A number of other inscriptions mentions their victories over the kings of Chera kingdom and Ezhil Malai rulers. King Pulakesin II (610–642) is also said to have conquered Chera, Pandya and Chola kingdoms. Soon the three rulers made an alliance and marched against the Chalukyas. But the Chalukyas defeated the confederation. King Vinayaditya also subjugated Chera king, and made him pay tribute to the Chalukyas. King Vikramaditya is also said to have defeated the Cheras. King Simhavishnu and Mahendra Varman are first Pallava rulers to claim sovereignty over the Chera kingdom. Narasimha Varman and the Pandya ruler Sendan (654–670) also won victories over the Cheras. King Nandivarman II of the Pallavas allied with the Cheras in fight against the Pandyas under Varaguna I. Rashtrakutas also claim control over Cheras. King Dantidurga and Govinda III is said to have defeated the Cheras.

The Ay Kingdom, situated south of the Chera kingdom, functioned for long as an effective buffer state between a declining Chera kingdom and an emerging Pandya Kingdom. Later, the Pandyas conquered the Ays and a made it a tributary state. As late as 788 AD, the Pandyas under King Maranjadayan or Jatilavarman Parantaka invaded the Ay kingdom and took the port city of Vizhinjam. But, the Ays does not seem to have submitted the Pandyas and fought against them for almost a century.

Second Chera Kingdom (Medieval Cheras)

The Chera power re-emerged into light c. 9th century AD under King “Alwar” Kulasekhara Varman, who succeeded his father Thidaviradhan in 800 AD. By this time the Chera capital was at Tiruvanchikkulam (Mahodayapuram) near present day Kodungallur. He established the “Second Chera Kingdom” from the new capital at Mahodayapuram. But his sovereignty was constrained by the pre-existing power of the Aryan-Brahmin settlements across his kingdom and the hereditary chieftains called “Naduvazhis”. The Second Cheras allied with the Cholas against the Pallavas, and with Pandyas against the Cholas between 8–10th century AD. By the last centuries of their rule, Kulasekharas became an active ally of the Pandyas and Lambakannas of Sri Lanka, against the raising Later Chola power. In 805 AD, Rashtrakutas conquered the Later Cheras and during a brief period between 855 and 865 AD Rashtrakutas continually ruled over them.

According to Bishop Cadwell, it was under the Brahmana influence the rulers changed their Dravidian names to Aryan titles in this period. The second ruler Rajasekhara Varma has been identified with famous Saivite saint Cheraman Perumal “Nayanar”. By this time, the Cheras had close contacts with the Ays in the south. They helped the Ays to fight the Pandyas. The relations between Cholas and Cheras were very friendly during there decades. Chera ruler Sthanu Ravi Varman even helped the Cholas with an army to fight against the Pallavas. The royal court of Sthanu Ravi Varman was adorned by the famous astronomer Sankaranarayana and there was an observatory at the capital city Mahodayapuram.

The annexation of the Ay kingdom (now under the Cholas) into the Chera kingdom by King Goda Ravi Varma created tensions between the Cholas and Cheras. The Cheras further provoked the Cholas by granting political asylum the defeated Pandya ruler Maravarman Rajasimha II. Along with the Cheras, the Ays under King Vikramaditya Varaguna (885–925) also seems to have helped the Pandyas in their fight against the Cholas.

During the reign of King Indu Kotha Varma Chola emperor Parantaka Chola invaded and annexed the north-western parts of the Kongunadu. This area was ruled by a relatives of the Cheras called “Kongu Cheras”(in the middle of the 10th century, Kongu region of the Chera Kingdom became an independent entity under the rule of the members of a collateral Chera family called “Kongu Cheras”. Kongu Cheras bore the titles and the names of the neighboring Cholas). Immediately, the Chera army joined with Pandyas in their fight against the Cholas.

Adi Shankara, the Hindu philosopher who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta, was Kulasekhara Varman’s contemporary. King Bhaskara Ravi Varman I issued the famous Jewish Copper Plate conferring a Jewish chief. The prolonged Chola-Chera war (“Hundred Years War”) began during the era of Bhaskara Ravi Varman. Emperor Raja Raja Chola (985–1016 AD) defeated the Chera armies at multiple locations (such as at Kandalur, Vizhinjam, probably at Quilon, Mahodayapuram-Udagai etc.) in the their kingdom. The Cholas had annexed the whole of southern Travancore south of Kuzhithara from the Cheras by the end of Raja Raja Chola’s rule. During the time of Emperor Rajendra Chola, the Chera regained southern Travancore and sent an army to Sri Lanka to help them against the Cholas. But, soon the Cholas sacked Vizhinjam and Kandalur and advanced into Malabar by Palghat pass. In the following battle at Mahodayapuram, King Bhaskara Ravi Varman I along with his numerous generals and chiefs was killed. But, the Cholas failed to bring the whole Chera kingdom under their control. Only regions south of Trivandrum continued under Chola hegemony. Cheras under King Vira Kerala rebelled against the Cholas in 1028 AD. But, Cholas suppressed the uprising and won several victories in campaigns ensued. Vira Kerala was captured and executed, ruler of Venadu and the Mushaka chief of Iramakutam were killed. The prolonged wars had weakened the Chera power considerably. Some chiefs (“Naduvazhis”) took advantage of the chaotic opportunity and asserted their independence.

Later, the Cholas established supremacy over vast regions of the Chera kingdom. The Cheras acknowledged the supremacy of the Cholas, but made sustained efforts to re-establish themselves. Finally, the Cheras reorganized their defences and became completely free of Chola control. The Cheras also helped the Pandyas to recover their territories from the Cholas. The Chola Emperor Kulattunga Chola defeated the Pandyas in retaliation and attacked the Chera kingdom (at Kandalur, Vizhinjam, Quilon, Mahodayapuram). The newly crowned King Rama Varma Kulasekhara faced with an unprecedented and chaotic crisis. He transformed large body of his army to suicide squads (known as “the Chavers”) and resisted heroically. After the sacking of Mahodayapuram, he shifted his capital to Quilon. Finally the Cholas were defeated and forced to withdraw to the south. The retreat marked the virtual end of Chola domination in Kerala. Rama Varma Kulasekhara seems to have abdicated the throne in favour of his son Kotha Varma and retired from public life

In the absence of a central power at Mahodayapuram, the divisions of the Later Chera kingdom soon emerged as principalities under separate chieftains. The post-Chera period witnessed a gradual decadence of the Nambudiri-Brahmans and rise of the Nairs.

Venad ruler Kotha Varma (1102–1125) probably conquered Kottar and portions of Nanjanadu from the Pandyas. Under the reign of Vira Ravi Varma the system of government became very efficient, and village assemblies functioned vigorously. Udaya Marthanda Varma’s tenure was noted for the close relationship between the Venadu and Pandyas. By the time of Ravi Kerala Varma (1215–1240), Odanadu Kingdom had acknowledged the authority of the Venadu rulers. The next Venadu ruler Padmanabha Marthanda Varma is alleged to have been killed by Vikrama Pandya in 1264 AD.

Probably, the Pandyas led a successful military expedition to Venadu and captured the capital city of Quilon between 1250 to 1300 AD. The records of Jatavarman Sundara Pandya and Maravarman Kulasekhara Pandya testify the establishment of Pandya rule over Venadu.

The death of the celebrated King Jayasimha initiated a civil war in Venadu. Ravi Varma Kulasekhara, the last of the Venadu kings came to throne according to patrilineal system, came out successful in this battles. Ravi Varma ruled Venadu as a vassal of the Pandyas till the death of King Maravarman Kulasekhara. But, after death of the king he became independent and even claimed the throne of the Pandyas (Ravi Varma had married the daughter of deceased Pandya ruler). He later annexed large parts of southern India and raised Venadu to the position of a powerful military state for a short time. The chaotic situation in the Pandya kingdom helped his conquests. The Venadu ruler invaded Pandya kingdom and defeated the prince Vira Pandya. After annexing the entire Pandya state, he crowned as “Emperor of South India” in 1312 at Madurai. He later annexed Tiruvati and Kanchi (the Chola Kingdom). Under Ravi Varma Venadu attained a high degree of economic prosperity.

The success of Ravi Varma was short lived and soon after his the death, the region became a conglomeration of warring states. And Venadu itself transformed into one these states. The line of Venadu kings after Ravi Varma continued through the law of matrilineal succession.

Aditya Varma Sarvanganatha (1376–1383) is known have defeated the Muslim in raiders of the south and checked the tide of Islamic advance. During the rule of Chera Udaya Marthanda Varma, Venad gradually extended their sway over the Tirunelveli region. Ravi Ravi Varma (1484–1512) was the ruler Venad during the arrival of Portuguese in India.

The Chera Kingdom owed its importance to the trade with the Romans. The geographical advantages, like the abundance of black pepper and other spices, the navigability of the rivers connecting the high mountains with the Arabian sea and the discovery of favourable trade winds which carried sailing ships directly from the Arabian coast to Chera Kingdom in less than forty days, combined to produce a veritable boom in Cheras’s foreign trade. Muziris, the famous sea port with two Roman regiments, was in the Chera kingdom and throughout the reign of the Cheras, trade continued to bring prosperity to their kingdom, with spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems being exported to the Middle East and to southern Europe.

Administration

Monarchy was the most important political institution of the Chera kingdom. There was a high degree of pomp and pageantry associated with the person of the king. The King wore a gold crown studded with precious stones. The king was an autocrat, but his powers limited by a counsel of ministers and scholars. The King held daily durbar to hear the problems of the common men and to redress them on the spot. The Royal Queen had a very important and privileged status and she took her seat by the side of the king in all religious ceremonies.  Another important institution was the “manram” which functioned in each village of the Chera kingdom. Its meeting were usually held by the village elders under a banyan tree and they helped in the local settlement disputes. The manrams were the venues for the village festivals as well. In the course of the imperial expansion of the Cheras the members of the royal family set up residence at several places of the kingdom (at Vanchi, Karur and Tondi). They followed the collateral system of succession according to which the eldest member of the family, wherever he lived, ascended the throne. Junior princes and heir-apparents (crown princes) helped the ruling king in the administration.

King Uthiyan Cheralathan and his sons grandsons belonged to one branch of the Chera royal family called “Vanavaramban line”. Prince Antuvan Cheral and his sons grandsons belonged to another branch called “Irumporai line”. The prince Antuvan Cheral mentioned below is the father of King Selva Kadungo. He is some times identified with Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttuvan (younger brother of King Uthiyan Cheralathan) as is evidenced by Madamisyar in Purananuru. Antuvan Cheral had his seat at a city called Karur. The Ay ruler Ay Antiran was an elder contemporary of Antuvan Cheral. The Ays were probably more powerful than the Cheras during the time of Ay Antiran. Antuvan Cheral and three others in his line are regarded as contemporaries of Nedum Cheralathan and his sons. It is important to note that King Selva Kadumko Valiathan and King Nedum Cheralathan married two sisters.

Apart from these two clans, are also some other Chera rulers who figure in Sangam works. These rulers did not belonged to the main Chera line. One of the most important of them is Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai. Probably, he is the son and successor of King Illam Cheral Irumporai and the hero of the lost 10th decade. Another Chera ruler Kanaikkal Irumporai is also referred in the Sangam poems. “Palai Paitiya” Perum Kadungo was a Chera ruler based on the city of Vanchi. Kothai Marpan with capital at Tondi also figure in the Sangam literature.

Dominions, Provinces and ports

The traditional Chera Kingdom was generally divided into five divisions on the basis of topography.

·         Puzhinadu- former Ezhil Malai kingdom (the sandy land)

·         Kudanadu (the western land)

·         Karkainadu (the impregnable rocky land, east of Kudanad)

·         Kuddanadu/Kuttanadu (the land of lakes)

·         Velnadu

The main ports in the Chera Kingdom were,  Tondi on the banks of Makkali river, south of the Lueke Island, Bramagara, Kalaikkarias, Muziris on the banks of Chulli/Pseudostomos river, Podoperoura, Semne, Koreoura/Kothora, and Bakarei at the mouth of river Baris.  In land cities between Tondi and Muziris were,  Naroulla, Kouba, and Paloura. In land cities between Pseudostomos and Baris were, Pasage, Mastanour, Kourellour, Pounnata, Aloe, Karoura, Arembour Bideris/Videris, Pantipolis, Adarima Koreour.

Military

The Cheras had a well-equipped army which consisted of infantry, cavalry, elephants and chariots. There was also an efficient navy. The Chera soldiers made offering to the War Goddess Kottavai before any military operation. It was tradition that the Chera rulers emerged victorious in a battle to wear the anklets made out of the crowns of the defeated rulers.[35]

Foreign trade

Chera trade with the foreign countries around Mediterranean can be traced back to the pre-Christian era. They were in contact with the Satavahanas, Greeks and Arabs. In the 1st century of Common era, Romans conquered the Egypt and that helped them to establish a monopoly in the Arabian Sea trade. Many documentary and archaeological evidences of legendary port of Chera empire, Muziris, correspond to this period; Periplus of the Erythraean Sea portrays the trade in the kingdom of Cerobothras (Cheraputras) in detail. Muziris was the most important port in the Malabr coast, which according to the Periplus, abounded with large ships of Romans, Arabs and Greeks. Bulk of spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems were exported from the Chera ports to Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Phoenicia and Arabia. The Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange of Pepper.Hoards of Greek, Roman and Arabic coins unearthed from Kollam, Kottayam, Eyyal, and Kodungallur corroborate these ancient trade relations. Chera coins were also excavated from various locations in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, such as Pattanam (probably the location of Muziris), Karur, Namakkal, Erode and Coimbatore.

Roman ships reached the Chera kingdom through two ways –  through the ports of northwest India from Indus to the Tamil lands and/or directly from the Gulf of Aden to southern India. Most of the Chera ports had begun as large fishing villages where territorial product could be collected and exchanged. Then these villages became more urbanized and commercial as a response to growing trade contacts.

The Chera trading stations of Naura and Tyndis began as busy fishing villages, but later the presence of large number of pirates posed a major threat to the Roman ships and Roman merchants had to resort to more southerly ports of Muziris and Nelcynda. Roman ships did not sail further east during this period. Consequently, the Chera ports became more significant for Romans. Hundred of Romans possibly spent months in the Chera kingdom awaiting favorable conditions for returning to Europe while some Roman officials were entitled to stay throughout the year to make arrangements on behalf of sailors arrived seasonally. These Roman agents conducted trade dealings with the locals and Peutinger Table marks the presence of a Roman Temple (of Augustus) in the Malabar coast for the use of these visitors. According to Periplus, special consignments of grain were sent to places like Muziris. This was probably to support the resident Romans who needed something to supplement the local diet of rice.

Black Pepper is known as “Kari” in Tamil literatureIt was not possible to deep-hulled ships to reach Muziris (the port was situated upriver). The Romans were forced to wait at the edge of the lagoon while their cargoes were transferred upstream on smaller crafts. Muziris was a large settlement owed its prosperity to shipping from the Roman empire and northern India. Black pepper from the inland hills was brought to Muziris by local producers and stacked in warehouses to await the arrival of Roman merchants.

By the time of Pliny’s writing Muziris too was full of pirates. Chera-Padya war during this time further exacerbated the conditions and diverted Roman trade away, causing the decline of both the kingdom and its dynasty.

Coinage

A number of coins belonging to Chera rulers have been discovered from both Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Silver coins with the portrait of a Chera king and legend “Makkotai” written in Tamil-Brahmi script have been found near Karur. There are also coins with legend “Kuttuvan Kotai” and “Kollipurai” along with the Chera symbols of bow and arrow.

Society and religion

The Chera population was not divided into castes and communities. The Varna system had not taken a clear shape. Social exclusiveness and un-approachability were unknown. Communities such as the Pana, Kuruva, Paraya and Veta were held in high esteem by the rulers. These people educated and enjoyed social freedom and equality. Many great poets of the Sangam age were Panas.

Women enjoyed a high status in the Chera realms. They educated and never covered their faces. Auvvaiyar (c. 500 AD) was the most outstanding poet of her age. Child marriage was unknown and widow marriage was permitted.

Most of the Chera population followed native practices. The worship of departed heroes was a common practice in the Chera kingdom along with tree worship and other kinds of ancestor worships. The war goddess Kottavai was propitiated with complex sacrifices. The Cheras probably worshiped this mother goddess. Kottavai was later on assimilated into the present day form of goddess Devi. There is no evidence of snake worship in the Chera realms and till 7th century AD there is no proof of Ganesha worship either.  A small percentage of the population followed Jainism, Buddhism and Brahmanism. These three philosophies came from northern India to the Chera kingdom. A small Jewish and Christian population also lived in the Chera territories.

Krishnadevaraya who ruled the kingdom of Vijayanagara in between 1509-1529 was one of the greatest statesmen which medieval South India had produced. Called variously as ‘Kannadaraya’, ‘Sri Karnata Mahisa’ and ‘Kannada Rajya Ramaramana’, his rule saw all round prosperity of South India, culturally and materialistically. He was the son of Tuluva Narasanayaka and after the death of his brother Vira Narasimha ascended the throne of Vijayanagara in 1509. C.Hayavadana Rao opines that Krishnadevaraya was possibly ruling simultaneously with Vira Narasimha long before his coronation in August 1509.At the time of Krishnadevaraya’s accession to the throne, the condition of the empire was unstable. Not only he had to deal with rebellious subordinates but also the aggression of the Gajapatis of Orissa and the Muslim kingdoms in the north. But he came out successfully against all his adversaries.

His war against the Bahamanis: Though the Bahamani kingdom had split up into five separate states, the sultans of these kingdoms used to organize annual jihad against Vijayanagar. Soon after his accession to the throne, Krishnadevaraya had to face the combined army of the Bahamani Sultan and the Adilshah of Bijapur. Krishnadevaraya defeated them at a place called Doni and pursued them up to Kovilakonda where they were again defeated. The sultan of Bijapur, Yusuf Adil Khan lost his life in the battle. For the first time the Muslim kingdoms realized that they could no longer plunder and ravage Vijayanagar at will. In 1512, Krishnadevaraya re-conquered Raichur, which was in the hands of Bijapur for nearly 20 years. Then he marched towards Gulbarga, the capital of the Bahamini kingdom and freed the Bahamani sultan Mahmud II from his minister, Kasim Barid, reinstated him back to the throne and took the title ‘Establisher of the Yavana (Muslim) kingdom’. But later taking advantage of Krishnadevaraya’s preoccupation with the Orissa campaign, Ismail Adil Khan, the successor of Yusuf recaptured Raichur. Krishnadevaraya marched against him with an army consisting of one million men and defeated the Bijapur army at Kembavi and Surapur. Raichur was re-conquered in 1522. Then once again he marched to Gulbarga and liberated the sons of Mahmud II from Ali Barid, the son of Kasim Barid, made the eldest of them sultan and brought the others with him to Vijayanagar and treated them with much consideration.

His campaign against the Gajapatis: In 1512, Krishnadevaraya turned his attention to the east and conquered the fort of Udayagiri from the Gajapati in 1513 after a long a siege of one and a half years. Prataparudra’s attempt to raise the siege of Udayagir resulted in his defeat and the fleeing Gajapati army was pursued by the Vijayanagara army up to Kondavidu. Forts like Kandukur, Addanki, Vinukonda, Bellamakonda, Nagarjunakonda and Ketavaram was conquered and in June 1515 Kondavidu was caputured. Next he captured Rajamahendri and proceeded as far as Simhachalam. He established a pillar of victory at Potnur. Finally he invested Cuttack, the capital of the Gajapatis and Gajapati Prataparudra was forced to sue for peace in 1518. The Gajapati gave his daughter, Tukkadevi or Jaganmohini in marriage to Krishnadevaraya. In turn Krishnadevaraya returned all the territory north of Krishna to Prataparudra. Taking advantage of the Krishnadevaraya’s preoccupation in his Orian war, the sultan of Golkonda marched against Kondavidu and besieged it. Krishnadevaraya immediately dispatched a huge army of 200000 men under Saluva Timma, who defeated the Golkonda army and captured its commander Madarul Mulk and several officers.

Suppression of Internal revolts: The chieftain of Ummatur, Gangaraya had been in revolt since the last days of Vira Narasimha’s reign. In 1512, Krishnadevaraya marched against him and captured Sivanasamudra, the headquarters of Gangaraya. Gangaraya fled and was drowned in the river Kaveri. The conquered territory became a new province with Srirangapatana as capital. The same year Mangalore was also captured.

As a Warrior: Krishnadevaraya used to personally lead his army against adversaries in the battlefield and showed amazing resourceful ness in overcoming obstacles in his path. During the siege of the Udayagiri fort, he got boulders and rocks smashed to make passage wider and smoother for the movement of his troops. He showed extraordinary courage even in the face of gravest danger. For instance during the siege of the fort of Raichur, when the first line of defense was broken by the artillery fire from the enemy, Krishnadevaraya who was in charge of the second line stood firm and exhorted his men to fight without caring for their lives. Motivated by his call his men fought heroically and won the battle. Krishnadevaraya loved and cared his men and on the conclusion of a battle used to go to the battlefield looking for the wounded, making arrangement to pick them and treat.

 His personality: According to Domingo Paes, the Portuguese traveler who visited Vijayanagara in 1520, Krishnadevaraya was of medium height and of fair complexion and with a good figure, rather fat than thin and had the signs of smallpox on his face. Paes records that Krishnadevaraya used to do exercises daily in the morning by applying oil on his body and used to work out till all the oil came out in the form of sweat. This was followed by a long ride over his horse. Then he used to take his bath, offer worship to gods and began his official work. “He is the most feared king, but very cheerful and merciful”- he adds.

Scholar and Patron of Arts: Krishnadevaraya was a great patron of literature and was know as Abhinava Bhoja. Himself being a scholar, he wrote the Telugu work Amuktamalyada and a Sanskrit play, Jambavati Kalyana. He had eight great scholars called Ashtadiggajas in his court. They included Allasani Peddana often described as the Andhrakavitapitamaha. His famous work was Manucharitamu, Another famous poet was Nandi Timmanna, the author of Parijathapaharanamu. Others eminent literary luminaries were Tenali Ramakrishna, Kumara Dhurjati and Rama Raja Bhushana. He asked the Kannada poet Timmanna to complete the Kannada Mahabharatha started by Kumara Vyasa. Telugu poet Peddanna was personally honoured by him for his proficiency in Telugu and Sanskrit and taken in a palanquin borne by Krishnadevaraya himself. According to Nidatavolu Venkata Rao, the reign of Krishnadevaraya is a glorious chapter in the South Indian literary history. The imperial court had representatives of Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil poets, who contributed largely to their respective literatures.

His religious beliefs: Krishnadevaraya patronized all religious sects and was a devotee of Lord Venkateshwara of Tirupati and even now we can see the images of Krishnadevaraya along with his two queens standing with folded hands in the Tirupati temple. The images have their names written in Kannada. Vallabhacharya and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the renowned saints of the bhakti movement visited his court. Krishnadevaraya honoured the former by performing Kanakabhisheka (showering gold coins on him). Krishnadevaraya held the Madhwa saint Vyasatirtha in much reverence and had left his throne vacant for the saint to occupy for some time. Krishnadevaraya expanded the temple of Ramaswamy at Vijayanagara and added a kalyanamantapa and tower to the temple of Virupaksha. He also constructed the Krishnaswamy and Vithalaswamy temples in the imperial capital.

As an Administrator: Krishnadevaraya toured the remote corners of his empire and heard the grievances of the people and redressed them then and there. He set up an excellent administrative system. The empire was divided into Mandalas, Nadus and Seeme. For the purpose of assessment and fixation of revenue, Krishnadevaraya had the whole of his empire surveyed. The unit of land for assessment was known as Rayarekhe or the royal line and which measured roughly about seven feet and nine inches. Twenty of these units made a bigha and 36 bigha’s, a mar or plot of 16 to 18 acres. Land revenue was fixed based on the yield, normally 1/3rd of the produce. Krishnadevaraya provided irrigation facilities to the dry regions around Vijayanagara with the help of a Portuguese engineer. The friendly relations with the Portuguese helped him obtain the highbred Arabian horses and the expansion of the overseas trade of the empire. He helped the Portuguese to conquer Goa from the Bijapur rulers in 1510. Krishnadevaraya built two new suburbs in the capital and called it Nagalapura and Tirumala Deviyarapattana in honour of his mother, Nagala Devi and queen Tirumalamba. Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Durate Barbosa visted his court and have left accounts of their experience there. According to the former Vijayanagar was very prosperous with abundance of foodstuffs, vegetables, fruits and animals being sold in profusion in the markets of the city at cheap rates. Barbosa speaks of the trade in jewels, diamonds, pearls and silk brocades, which were in plenty on its streets. “The city of Vijayanagar is constantly filled with an innumerable crowd of all nations and creeds”, he adds.

The End: It is said that Krishnadevaraya in his own lifetime had made his six year old son prince Tirumalaraya as the king and himself took up the post of minister. But Tirumalaraya fell ill and died possibly poisoned by the son of Saluva Timma (chief minister). When Krishnadevaraya came to know of it, he sent for the chief minister, accused him in open court and cast him and his whole family into prison. Meanwhile Krishnadevaraya was preparing for an attack on Belgaum, then in the Adil Shah’s possession when he took seriously ill and died soon after in 1529. Before his death, he nominated his brother, Achyutaraya to be his successor. The rule of Krishnadevaraya was a glorious chapter in the history of Vijayanagara Empire.

He was one of the most succesful kings in Indian History and a forebearer of Hinduism.

Here is yet another untold story about the MEDIEVAL INDIAN ERA MILITIA-(part II)

§  About the Mysore Kingdom

Hyder Ali, the de facto ruler of Mysore, was one of the first Indian rulers to resist the British, allying instead with France. He was one of the first Indian rulers to use rockets, employing them to defeat a top British unit.

Tipu Sultan,Hyder Ali’s son and successor, also proved to be a benefactor in this regard. He developed the first iron-cased and metal-cylinder rocket artillery, in the 1780s. He successfully used these metal-cylinder rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. The Mysore rockets of this period were much more advanced than what the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km (1 mi) range). After Tipu’s eventual defeat in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, they were influential in British rocket development, inspiring the Congreve rocket, which was soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars.

·        Some facts exhumed by historians about these rulers:

According to Stephen Oliver Fought and John F. Guilmartin, Jr. in Encyclopædia Britannica (2008): “Hyder Ali, prince of Mysore, developed war rockets with an important change: the use of metal cylinders to contain the combustion powder. Although the hammered soft iron he used was crude, the bursting strength of the container of black powder was much higher than the earlier paper construction. Thus a greater internal pressure was possible, with a resultant greater thrust of the propulsive jet. The rocket body was lashed with leather thongs to a long bamboo stick. Range was perhaps up to three-quarters of a mile (more than a kilometre). Although individually these rockets were not accurate, dispersion error became less important when large numbers were fired rapidly in mass attacks. They were particularly effective against cavalry and were hurled into the air, after lighting, or skimmed along the hard dry ground. Hyder Ali’s son, Tippu Sultan, continued to develop and expand the use of rocket weapons, reportedly increasing the number of rocket troops from 1,200 to a corps of 5,000. In battles at Seringapatam in 1792 and 1799 these rockets were used with considerable effect against the British.”

§  About The Sikh Empire-

Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the founder of the Sikh Empire, was the ruler of the sovereign country of Punjab. His father Maha Singh led Sukerchakia, a misl within the Sikh Confederacy. Lahore was his capital from 1799. In 1802 he conquered Amritsar, a holy city of the Sikh religion. In 1822 Ranjit Singh hired European mercenaries for the first time to train a part of his troops. He modernized his army, creating a military force whose power delayed the eventual British colonization of Punjab. The result was a powerful and heavily armed state. The Battle of Jamrud in 1837 was a major setback for Ranjit Singh: his general Hari Singh Nalwa was killed, the Khyber Pass was established as the western limit of the Sikh Empire’s influence. Ranjit Singh died in 1839, and his empire crumbled under internal strife and poor governance by his heirs. On the east of his realm Gulab Singh extended Sikh authority in the Himalayas until stopped by the Qing Empire in the Sino-Sikh war (1841–1842). After the First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46), Punjab effectively ceased to be an independent state. The British Empire annexed the Sikh Empire following the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49).

Some facts to know:

·         MISL – a term which originated in the eighteenth century history of the Sikhs to describe a unit or brigade of Sikh warriors and the territory acquired by it in the course of its campaign of conquest following the weakening of the Mughal authority in the country. The ‘Misldar’ was the leader or commander of the ‘Misl’ or ‘army group’.

·        The Dal Khalsa -a Sikh army that operated in 17th and 18th-century Punjab.

Key points about ‘the misls’:

Each Misl was made up of members of soldiers, whose loyalty was given to the Misl’s Baron (Misldar). A Misl could be comprised of a few hundred to tens of thousands soldiers. Every solider was free to join any Misl he chose and free to cancel his membership of the Misl to whom he belonged. He could, if wanted, cancel his membership of his old Misl and join another (provided certain procedures were followed). The Barons would allow their armies to combine or coordinate their defence together against a hostile force if ordered by the Misldar Supreme Commander. These orders were only issued in military matters affecting the whole Sikh community. These orders were normally related to defence against external threats, such as, Afghan Military attacks (typically initiated by Afghan Kings).

Key points about ‘the Dal Khalsa’:

The Dal Khalsa was a kind of loose confederacy, without any regular constitution. Every chief maintained his independent character. All amritdhari Sikhs were eligible for membership of the Dal Khalsa which was mainly a cavalry force. Anyone who was an active horseman and proficient in the use of arms could join any one of the eleven misls or independences having the option to change membership whenever desired. The misls were subject to the control of the Sarbat Khalsa, the biannual assembly of the Panth at Amritsar.

Now throwing light upon some of the prominent misls of that time:

·         Bhangi or Bhuma Army first by Baron Hari Singh Dhillon -(Strength – 20,000 regular horsemen)

·         Karorh Singhia Army (also known as Panjgarhia), first led by Baron Karora Singh Virk -(Strength – 10,000 regular horsemen)

·         Nakai Army, first led by Baron Hira Singh Nakai Sandhu-(Strength – 7,000 regular horsemen)

·         Ahluwalia Army, first led by Baron Jassa Singh Ahluwalia -(Strength – 6,000 regular horsemen)

·         Ramgarhia Army, first led by Baron Nand Singh Sanghania and then by Jassa Singh Ramgarhia -(Strength – 5,000 regular horsemen)

·         Kanahiya Army, first led by Baron Jai Singh Kanhaiya Mann-(Strength – 5,000 regular horsemen)

·         Dallewalia Army, first led by Baron Gulab Singh Dallewalia -(Strength – 5,000 regular horsemen)

·         Shaheed Army, first led by Baron Baba Deep Singh -(Strength – 5,000 regular horsemen)

·         Faizalpuria or Singhpuria Army, first led by Baron Nawab Kapur Singh Virk -(Strength – 5,000 regular horsemen)

·         Shukarchakia Army, first led by Baron Naud Singh Sansi -(Strength – 5,000 regular horsemen)

·         Nishanwalia Army, first led by Baron Dasaundha Singh Gill -(Strength – 2,000 regular horsemen)

v Footnote:

The Sikh Confederacy is a description of the political structure, of how all the Barons’ Kingdoms interacted with each other, (politically), together in Punjab.The head Barons of each kingdom, in a council, democratically elected the Misldar Supreme Commander.

Previous Supreme Commanders include Nawab Kapur Singh and Jassa Singh Ahluwalia.

MEDIEVAL ERA MILITIA-(part I)

Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate, under the Khilji dynasty, repelled several invasions by the Mongol Empire. Zafar Khan, a general serving Alauddin Khilji, defeated the Mongols near Jalandhar in 1297. In 1299, Zafar Khan fought back a Mongol army of 200,000 soldiers but was killed in the process. Its last sultan, Ibrahim Lodi, died fighting the forces of Babur in the first battle of Panipat in 1526, ending the sultanate and paving the way for the foundation of the Mughal Empire.
The sultanate was military dictatorship; it owed its genesis to the military victory of the Turks over the Indian rulers in the 12th and 13th centuries and its strength and stability depended primarily on its strong and efficient army. The army organization of the sultans was based on feudal principles which carried all the inherent defects of the system with it.

The Rajputs

Handcoloured engravings by Frederic Shoberl from his work ‘The World in Miniature: Hindoostan’. London: R. Ackerman, 1820’s.“
After Babur’s victory over Ibrahim Lodi, the Mewar ruler Rana Sanga led a combined Rajput army of 20,000 intending to defeat Babur and capture Delhi. The Mughals had superior artillery, which prevailed against the Rajput cavalry. A Tomar general betrayed Rana Sanga, resulting in his defeat by Babur at the Battle of Khanua (16 March 1527). During the reign Rana Sanga’s son Rana Udai Singh II, Babur’s grandson Akbar conquered Chittor, the capital of Mewar.

In the Battle of Haldighati (21 June 1576) between Akbar and Rana Pratap Singh, the Mughal army of 80,000 was headed by a Rajput, Raja Man Singh, and Akbar’s son Salim. The Rajput army’s strength was 20,000. After a four-hour battle in which most of his soldiers were either killed or captured, Rana Pratap escaped with the help of his estranged brother Sakta Singh. His legendary horse Chetak was killed in the battle. Later, Rana Pratap organized a small army of Bhil tribals funded by a businessman called Bhamashah and started a guerrilla war against Akbar. He retook large parts of Mewar but could not retake Chittorgarh.

Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire began in 1526 with the overthrow of Ibrahim Lodi and encompassed most of South Asia by the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Allied with the Maharaja, it extended from Bengal in the east to Balochistan in the west, Kashmir in the north to the Kaveri basin in the south, a territory of over 4 million km2 at its height.

The art of Mughal warfare brought about a complete change in the way wars were fought in the Indian subcontinent. The Muslim armies that invaded India in the 11th and 12th centuries were small yet the art of their warfare made them invincible. They brought with them techniques and instruments of warfare that were hitherto unheard of in the sub-continent. The soldiers were protected from physical attack by means of a complete shield of armour from head to foot, their daggers and swords were made of superior alloys, and they brought with them the use of gunfire in warfare. That is why despite the courage and valour of the Indian armies a small group of warriors was able to overtake them and lay the foundation for the Mughal Empire.

The Mughals had an all-encompassing outfit for war that would secure maximum protection. Every part of the body had a corresponding unit for protection-head, torso and limbs.

The Mughals used various sophisticated weapons for warfare which was the prime reason for their triumph in the sub-continent. A major development in war was made by the introduction of gunpowder in Indian battle, a feat never accomplished before. Among the commonly used weapons are the sword and dagger, guns and cannon, archery and the extensive use of cavalry and infantry during war.

Men from military families who provided their own horses were recruited as cavalrymen. Initially they were mainly Muslim recruits. However as the Empire grew stronger in India, a number of Hindu warriors from the Kshatriya and warring castes were recruited. This is particularly true of the Rajputs in Rajasthan. These Hindu warriors were allowed to train and function under their own respective Kings and Rajahs. The army was divided into infantry, artillery and cavalry of which cavalry was the most important.

Maratha Empire

The Maratha Empire is credited with laying the foundation of the Indian Navy and bringing about considerable changes in naval warfare by introducing a blue-water navy.  From its inception in 1674, the Marathas established a Naval force, consisting of cannons mounted on ships.The dominance of the Maratha Navy started with the ascent of Kanhoji Angre as the Darya-Saranga by the Maratha chief of Satara. Under that authority, he was admiral of the Western coast of India from Mumbai to Vingoria (now Vengurla) in the present day state of Maharashtra, except for Janjira which was affiliated with the Mughal Empire. Until his death in 1729, he repeatedly attacked the colonial powers of Britain and Portugal, capturing numerous vessels of the British East India Company and extracting ransom for their return.

On 29 November 1721, a joint attempt by the Portuguese Viceroy Francisco José de Sampaio e Castro and the British General Robert Cowan to humble Kanhoji failed miserably. Their combined fleet consisted of 6,000 soldiers in no less than four Man-of-war besides other ships led by Captain Thomas Mathews of the Bombay Marine failed miserably. Aided by Maratha naval commanders Mendhaji Bhatkar and Mainak Bhandari, Kanhoji continued to harass and plunder the European ships until his death in 1729.
The ‘Pal’ was a three masted Maratha man-of-war with guns peeping on the broadsides.

There is no doubt that the single most important power to emerge in the long twilight of the Mughal dynasty was the Maratha confederacy. The Maratha Empire of India, also called the Maratha Confederacy, was founded by Chatrapati Shivaji in 1674, when he carved an independent Maratha zone around Pune, Maharshtra, from the Bijapur Sultanate. At its peak, the empire covered much of South Asia, encompassing a territory of over 2.8 million km². Shivaji established an effective civil and military administration. He made it a state policy never to desecrate a mosque or seize women after military raids. After a lifetime of conquest and guerrilla warfare with the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, Shivaji died in 1680, leaving behind a kingdom of great but ill-defined extent. This was followed by a period of instability ending with Aurangzeb’s death.
Shivaji was the second king in Indian history to maintain an active navy. Kanhoji Angre, the first Maratha naval chief under Shivaji’s grandson Shahuji, controlled illegal entries into the Maratha Empire by Dutch, English and Portuguese commercial ships on the Western coast of India in the early 18th century. He remained undefeated until his death in 1729.

Although the descendants of Shivaji continued to rule, the office of the Peshwa, or the Prime Minister, became the focus of Maratha power and patronage. The Peshwas were the effective rulers of the Maratha state and oversaw the period of greatest Maratha expansion, brought to an end by the Maratha’s defeat by an Afghan army at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761. The Marathas recovered their position as the dominant power in India by 1772 until the last Peshwa, Baji Rao II, was defeated by the British in the Third Anglo-Maratha War.

part II follows….

CLASSICAL AGE AND THE MILITARY THEN….

The classical age was acknowledged for the development of the artistic,educational,military and scientific exploits which after it’s beginning continued to leave it’s mark over the succeeding generations. Significant achievements in these fields marked the importance and enhanced it’s reputation in the whole history of the classical age. Religion underwent a synthesis and major sectarian deities, image-worshipping and temples gained grounds. Religious life became enriched with music, classical dances, literary works and so on. Subjects like Grammar, astronomy and other scientific disciplines were dealt in an advanced manner with more specialization in them. Classical age in India is also revered for it’s contribution in the field of mathematics and astronomy as being the first to replace the Roman System with the Indian Numeral System. ’Decimal’ system was one such invention of this era. Charaka and Sushruta were the two exponents who excelled in the medical field. Indians also excelled in pharmacopoeia, bone setting ,caesarean section and skin grafting procedures.

Harsha’s Empire>>

Emperor Harshavardhana (606–648) ruled northern India for over forty years. His father, a king of Thanesar, had gained prominence by successful wars against the Huns. Harsha had plans to conquer the whole of India, and carried on wars for thirty years with considerable success. By 612 he had built up a vast army with which he conquered nearly all North India up to the Narmada river. In 620 he invaded the Deccan Plateau but was repelled by Pulakesi II.
Though quite a young man when he came to power, Harsha proved himself a great conqueror and an able administrator. After his accession, Harsha united the two kingdoms of Thanesar andKannauj and transferred his capital from Thanesar to Kannauj.
Harsha set out to punish his rival, Shashanka, the lord of Gauda (Bengal). He formed an alliance with Bhaskaravarman, king of Kamarupa and marched on Shashanka. Although he defeated his rival, the result was indecisive as Shashanka continued to rule much of his kingdom and it was only after his death that Harsha was able to oust Shashanka’s son, Manava and bring Bihar, Kanauj and northern Bengal under his rule (Bhaskaravarman was able to conquer the remainder of the Shashanka’s kingdom).  He conquered Dhruvasena of Gujarat and gave his own daughter in marriage to him. He also conquered Ganjam (whose king was a vassal of Shashanka), a part of the modern Orissa State.
Harsha’s ambition of extending his power to the Deccan and Southern India were stopped by the great Chalukya Emperor of South India Pulakeshi II, the Chalukya king of Vatapi in NorthernKarnataka along the banks of river Narmada. Pulakeshi defeated Harsha’s army on the banks of the river Narmada in 620 AD. A truce was agreed upon and the river Narmada was marked as the southern boundary of Harsha’s kingdom.

The Chalukyas and Pallavas>>

In South India, the Chalukyas and the Pallavas gained prominence. The Chalukya ruler Pulakesi II’s expansionism started with minor campaigns against theAlupas, Gangas and others. He defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarman and conquered the Cheras and the Pandyas. His greatest military success, the defeat of Harshavardhana, depleted his treasury, forcing him to end his expansionist campaigns.
The Pallava king Narasimhavarman vowed to avenge Mahendravarman’s defeat by Pulakesi II. He invaded Vatapi with an army headed by his general Paranjothi. He defeated the Chalukyas, killing Pulakesi II in 642. Clashes between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas continued for a century, until the Chalukya king Vikramaditya II won a decisive victory against the Pallavas in 740. The Rashtrakutas overthrew the Chalukya empire in 750. During the 970s, Tailapa IIoverthrew the Rashtrakutas and recovered most of the Chalukya Empire, except for Gujarat. The Chalukyas of this period are known as the Kalyani Chalukyas, as Kalyani was their capital. They clashed intermittently with the Cholas.

The Chola Empire>>

The Cholas were the first rulers of the Indian subcontinent to maintain a navy and use it to expand their dominion overseas.Vijayalaya Chola defeated the Pallavas and captured Thanjavur. In the early 10th century the Chola king Parantaka Idefeated the Pandyan king Maravarman Rajasimha II and invdaded Sri Lanka. The Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III defeated and killed Parantaka I’s son Rajaditya in about 949.
Uttama Chola reigned 970-85. Inscriptions tell that at least from his time, Chola warriors wore waist coats of armour. Hence, one regiment was called Niyayam-Uttama-Chola-tterinda-andalakattalar. Paluvettaraiyar Maravan Kandanar served as a general under Uttama and his predecessor, Sundara.
Rajaraja Chola began his military career with the conquest of the Cheras in the Kandalur War. He captured the Pandya ruler Amara Bhujanga, the town of Vilinam, and a part of Sri Lanka. In the 14th year of his reign (998–999) he conquered the Gangas of Mysore, the Nolambas of Bellary and Eastern Mysore, Tadigaipadi, Vengi, Coorg, the Pandyas and the Chalukyas of the Deccan. During the next three years, he subdued Quilon and the northern kingdom of Kalinga with the help of his son Rajendra Chola I. Rajendra later completed the conquest of Sri Lanka, crossed the Ganges, and marched across Kalinga to Bengal. He sent out a great naval expedition that occupied parts of Burma (Myanmar), Java, Malaya, andSumatra. The Cholas were brought down by the Hoysalas from the west and Pandyas from the south.

Medieval era rulers’ strategies and their warfare tactics follow…

GOLDEN AGE OF INDIA…

The peace and prosperity created under the leadership of the Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors.

This period is called the Golden Age of India and was marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture.The high points of this cultural creativity were magnificent architecture, sculptures and paintings.The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields. Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era.Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia.

The 4th century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, credits Guptas with having conquered about twenty one kingdoms, both in and outside India, including the kingdoms of Parasikas (Persians), the Hunas, the Kambojas tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys, the Kinnaras, Kiratas etc.

This could have been possible only due to their excellent military organization,which may be summed up as follows:-

           The Imperial Guptas could have achieved their successes                               through force of arms with an efficient martial system. Historically, the best accounts of this come not from the Hindus themselves but from Chinese and Western observers. However, a contemporary Indian document, regarded as a military classic of the time, the Siva-Dhanur-veda, offers some insight into the military system of the Guptas.
         
          The Iron pillar of Delhi is notable for the composition of the metals used in its construction.
The Guptas seem to have relied heavily on infantry archers, and the bow was one of the dominant weapons of their army. The Hindu version of the longbow was composed of metal, or more typically bamboo, and fired a long bamboo cane arrow with a metal head. Unlike the composite bows of Western and Central Asian foes, bows of this design would be less prone to warping in the damp and moist conditions often prevalent to the region. The Indian longbow was reputedly a powerful weapon capable of great range and penetration and provided an effective counter to invading horse archers. Iron shafts were used against armored elephants and fire arrows were also part of the bowmen’s arsenal. India historically has had a prominent reputation for its steel weapons. One of these was the steel bow. Due to its high tensility, the steel bow was capable of long range and penetration of exceptionally thick armor. These were less common weapons than the bamboo design and found in the hands of noblemen rather than in the ranks. Archers were frequently protected by infantry equipped with shields, javelins, and longswords.

           The Guptas also had knowledge of siegecraft, catapults, and other sophisticated war machines,and master at adobe
The Guptas apparently showed little predilection for using horse archers, despite the fact these warriors were a main component in the ranks of their Scythian, Parthian, and Hepthalite (Huna) enemies. However, the Gupta armies were probably better disciplined. Able commanders like Samudragupta and Chandragupta II would have likely understood the need for combined armed tactics and proper logistical organization. Gupta military success likely stemmed from the concerted use of elephants, armored cavalry, and foot archers in tandem against both Hindu kingdoms and foreign armies invading from the Northwest. The Guptas also maintained a navy, allowing them to control regional waters.

          During the reign of Chandragupta II, Gupta empire maintained a large army consisting of 500,000 infantry, 50,000 cavalry, 20,000 charioteers and 10,000 elephants along with a powerful navy with more than 1200 ships. Chandragupta II controlled the whole of the Indian subcontinent; the Gupta empire was the most powerful empire in the world during his reign, at a time when the Roman Empire in the west was in decline.

           The collapse of the Gupta Empire in the face of the Huna onslaught was due not directly to the inherent defects of the Gupta army, which after all had initially defeated these people under Skandagupta. More likely, internal dissolution sapped the ability of the Guptas to resist foreign invasion, as was simultaneously occurring in Western Europe and China.

Satavahana and Kushan dynasties,though prominent were dwarfed by the Gupta dynasty of this age..

CLASSICAL AGE WARFARE TRIVIA FOLLOWS….

Warfare of the Magadha dynasties……

 Shishunaga dynasty

Ajatashatru used catapults against the Licchavis.
The expansionist King Bimbisara conquered Anga in what is now West Bengal and strengthened the military of Magadh’s capital, Rajagriha. Ajatashatru built a new fort at Pataliputra, Magadh’s new capital, to launch an attack on Licchavis across the Ganges River. Jain texts tell that he used two new weapons, a catapult and a covered chariot with swinging mace that has been compared  to modern tanks.

 Nanda dynasty

The phalanx attacking the centre in the battle of the Hydaspes by André Castaigne (1898-1899).
Mahapadma Nanda defeated Ikshvakus, Panchalas, Kasis, Harhayas, Kalingas, Asmakas, Kurus, Maithilas, Surasenas, and Vitihotras and assumed the title “the destroyer of the kshathriyas”. At the time of Dhana Nanda, the Nandas had an army consisting of 80,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry, 8,000 armed chariots, and 6,000 war elephants.

 Maurya dynasty

The Maurya Empire at its largest extent under Ashoka the Great.
According to Megasthenes, who served as an ambassador from the Seleucid Empire, Chandragupta Maurya built an army consisting of 30,000 cavalry, 9,000 war elephants, and 600,000 infantry. Chandragupta conquered all of northern India, establishing an empire from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal. He then defeated the Macedonians and Seleucus Nicator to conquer the regions to the east of the Indus river. He then turned south, taking over much of what is now Central India. His military was administered by six chairs, one for each of the four arms of the army (infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariots), one chair for the navy, and one for logistics and supply.

Infantry at this time was most commonly armed with a longbow made of bamboo and a single- or double-handed broadsword probably similar to the khanda. Other foot soldiers could be armed with a large animal hide tower shield and a spear or javelins. Cavalry carried spears. Elephants were mounted, usually bareback (rarely with a howdah at this time, as it is a Greek invention), by archers or javelin throwers, with a mahout around the animal’s neck. Chariots by this time were in definite decline, but remained in the army due to their prestige.

In 185 BC, the last Mauryan ruler was assassinated by Pushyamitra Sunga, the Commander-in-Chief of the Mauryan armed forces.

Afterwards the Nanda Dynasty, Maurya Dynasty, Sunga Dynasty, Kanva Dynasty, Gupta Dynasty expanded beyond Magadha.

Golden Age History follows…