History of South India – Part 8: The Kadamba Dynasty

Kadamba Dynasty, Kadambas of Banavasi (Kannada: ಕದಂಬರು) (345 – 525 CE) was an ancient royal family of Karnataka, India that ruled northern Karnataka and the Konkan from Banavasi in present day Uttara Kannada district. At the peak of their power under King Kakushtavarma, Kadambas of Banavasi they ruled large parts of Karnataka state. The dynasty was founded by Mayurasharman in 345 CE which at times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions, an indication to which is provided by the titles and epithets assumed by its rulers. King Mayurasharman defeated the armies of Pallavas of Kanchi possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule of Kakusthavarma, a powerful ruler with whom even the kings of Gupta Dynasty of northern India cultivated marital alliances. Tiring of the endless battles and bloodshed, one of the later descendants, King Shivakoti adopted Jainism. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the Western Ganga Dynasty and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires for over five hundred years during which time they branched into Goa and Hanagal.

During the pre-Kadamba era the ruling families that controlled Karnataka, the Mauryas, Satavahanas and Chutus were not natives of the region and the nucleus of power resided outside present day Karnataka. The Kadambas were the first indigenous dynasty to use Kannada, the language of the soil at an administrative level. In the history of Karnataka, this era serves as a broad based historical starting point in the study of the development of region as an enduring geo-political entity and Kannada as an important regional language.

There is no shortage of myths about the origin of the Kadambas. According to one account the dynasty was founded by one Trilochana Kadamba also known from the Halsi and Degamve records as Jayanta who had three eyes and four arms. He was born out of the sweat of Shiva, which had fallen under a Kadamba tree and hence his name Kadamba. According to another myth, Mayurasharma himself was born to Lord Shiva and mother earth and had three eyes.  According to Grama Paddhati, a Kannada work dealing with the history of the Tulu Brahmanas, Mayurasharma was born to Lord Shiva and goddess Parvathi under a Kadamba tree in the Sahyadri mountains and hence the name Kadamba. An inscription of the Nagarakhanda Kadambas, a later descendent dynasty, gives a legendary account and traces their lineage back to the Nandas. According to the inscription, King Nanda who had no heir prayed to Lord Shiva in the Kailash mountains when a heavenly voice advised him that two sons would be born to him, would bear the name of Kadamba Kula (family) and they should be instructed in the use of weapons.

There are two theories to the origin of the Kadamba dynasty, a native Kannadiga origin and the other a north Indian origin. Mention of the north Indian origin of the Kadambas are only found in their later records of their offshoot descendent dynasty and is considered legendary. The earliest record making this claim is the 1053 and 1055 inscriptions of Harikesari Deva which are copied in inscriptions thereafter, describing Mayurasharma as the progenitor of the kingdom who established his might on the summit of Mount Himavat. But this theory has not found popularity as there is no indication of this account in any of their early records. On the contrary, the family derives its name from the Kadamba tree that is common only to the South India region.

Historians are divided on the issue of the caste of the Kadamba family, whether the founders of the kingdom belonged to the Brahmin caste as claimed by the Talagunda inscription, or were of tribal origin. A claim has been made that the Kadambas were none other than a tribe called the Kadambu, who were in conflict with the Chera kingdom (of modern Tamil Nadu – Kerala region). The ‘Kadambus’ find mention in the Tamil Sangam literature as totemic worshippers of the Kadambu tree and the Hindu god Subramanya.  While some historians have argued that they being of Brahmin descent made Mayurasharma’s ancestors natives of northern India, the counter argument is that it was common for Dravidian peoples to be received into the Brahmanic caste during early and later medieval times. Being native Kannadigas, the Kadambas promptly gave administrative and political importance to their language, Kannada, after coming to power. It is thus claimed that the family of the Kadambas were undoubtedly of Kanarese descent and may have been admitted into the Brahminical caste. The Naga descent of the Kadambas has been stated in early inscriptions of King Krishna Varma I too, which confirms the family was from present day Karnataka

Inscriptions in Sanskrit and Kannada are the main sources of the Kadamba history. The Talagunda, Gundanur, Chandravalli, Halasi and Halmidi inscription are some of the important inscriptions that throw light on this ancient ruling family of Karnataka.They belonged to the Manavya Gotra and were Haritiputras (lineage), which connects them to the native Chutus of Banavasi, a feudatory of the Satavahana empire. Inscriptions of the Kadambas in Kannada and Sanskrit ascribed to the main dynasty and branch kingdoms have been published by historians. The Kadambas minted coins with Nagari, Kannada and Grantha legends which provide additional numismatic evidence of their history.

Kadambas were the first rulers to use Kannada as an additional official administrative language, as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription of 450. Three Kannada inscriptions from their early rule from Banavasi have been discovered.  Several early Kadamba dynasty coins bearing the Kannada inscription Vira and Skandha was found in Satara collectorate. A gold coin of King Bhagiratha (390–415 CE) bearing the old Kannada legend Sri and Bhagi also exists. Recent discovery of 5th century Kadamba copper coin in Banavasi with Kannada script inscription Srimanaragi on it proves the usage of Kannada at the administrative level further.

One of their earliest inscriptions, the Talagunda inscription of Santivarma (450) gives what may be the most possible cause for the emergence of the Kadamba kingdom. It states that Mayura sharma was a native of Talagunda, (in present day Shimoga district) and his family got its name from the Kadamba tree that grew near his home. The inscription narrates how Mayurasharma proceeded to Kanchi in 345 along with his guru and grandfather Veerasarma to pursue his Vedic studies at a Ghatika (school). There, owing to some misunderstanding between him and a Pallava guard or at an Ashvasanstha (a place of horse sacrifice), a quarrel arose in which Mayurasharma was humiliated. In high rage, the Brahmana discontinued his studies, left Kanchi, swearing vengeance on the impudent Pallavas, and took to arms. He collected a faithful group of followers and routed the Pallava armies near Srisilam region. After a prolonged period of low intensity warfare against the Pallavas and other smaller kings such as the Brihad-Banas of Kolar region, he proclaimed independence. Unable to contain him, the Pallavas had to accept his sovereignty. Thus in an act of righteous indignation was born the first native kingdom of Karnataka, the Pallava King Skandavarman condescending to recognise the growing might of the Kadambas south of the Malaprabha river as a sovereign power. Mayurasharma availed himself of the confusion that was created by the invasion of Samudragupta who,in his Allahabad Inscription,claims to have defeated, among others,Vishnugopa of Kanchi. Taking advantage of the weakening of the Pallava power, Mayura appears to have succeeded in establishing a new kingdom. The fact that Mayurasharma had to travel to distant Kanchi for Vedic studies gives an indication that Vedic lore was quite rudimentary in the region at that time. The recently discovered Gudnapur inscription states that Mauryasharma’s grandfather and preceptor was Virasarma and his father Bandhushena developed the character of a Kshatriya.

Mayurasharma’s successor was his son Kangavarma who had to fight the Vakataka might to protect Kuntala. He was defeated by Vakataka Prithvisena but managed to maintain his freedom. His son Bhagiratha is said to have retrieved his fathers losses but Vakataka inscriptions do not attest to this. His son Raghu died fighting the Pallavas. He was succeeded by his brother Kakusthavarma who was the most ferocious and powerful ruler of the kingdom. He maintained marital relations with even the imperial Guptas of the north, according to the Talagunda inscription. One of his daughters was married to Kumara Gupta’s son Skanda Gupta. His other daughter was married to a Vakataka king Narendrasena. He maintained similar relations with the Bhatari, the Alupas of South Canara and the Western Ganga Dynasty of Gangavadi according to the Talagunda inscription. The great poet Kalidasa had visited his court.

After Kakusthavarma only Ravivarma who came to the throne in 485 AD was able to build upon the kingdom. His rule was marked by a series of clashes within the family, and also against the Pallavas and the Gangas. He is also credited with a victory against the Vakatakas, which extended his Kingdom as far north as the river Narmada. The crux of their kingdom essentially consisted of most of Karnataka, Goa and southern areas of present day Maharashtra. After his death, the kingdom went into decline due to family feuds. The Triparvatha branch that broke away ruled from Murod in Belgavi for some time and merged with the main Banavasi kingdom during rule of Harivarma. Finally the kingdom fell to the prowess of the Badami Chalukyas. The Kadambas thereafter became feudatories of the Badami Chalukyas and later the Rashtrakutas and Kalyani Chalukyas. The successors of Mayurasharma took to the name “varma” to indicate their Kshatriya status.

Although the Kadamba dynasty has been known from over 50 inscriptions, no coins had been firmly attributed to them until recently. However, coins of these kings came to light for the first time in 2006, when a hoard of coins was discovered, mostly coins of a lesser branch of the Satavahanas, who had ruled in the Banavasi area, a few coins of the Chutus, and Kadamba coins. They have been definitively attributed to the Kadambas because they not only have various Kadamba symbols, such as conches and chakras, but one of the epithets on the coins, sri dosharashi, is known from inscriptions to have been used by the Kadamba king Krishnavarma II (ruled 516-540). Other coins with the legend Sri Manarashi were also found, along with anepigraphic coins (that is, coins without any legends) featuring flowers, chakras, and conches. The lotus, chakra (discus), and conch are all symbols of the god Vishnu. Kadamba inscriptions frequently invoke Vishnu, indicating they must have been devotees of this deity. The identity of the king named Sri Manarashi has still not been determined.

The coins are perhaps the earliest ones to use Kannada letters, a confirmation that the Kadambas were the first ruling dynasty indigenous to Karnataka

The Kadamba kings called themselves Dharmamaharajas like the Satavahana kings. Dr. Mores has identified various cabinet and other positions in the kingdom from inscriptions. The prime minister (Pradhana), Steward (Manevergade), secretary of council (Tantrapala or Sabhakarya Sachiva), scholarly elders (Vidyavriddhas), physician (Deshamatya), private secretary (Rahasyadhikritha), chief secretary (Sarvakaryakarta), chief justice (Dharmadhyaksha) and other officials (Bhojaka and Ayukta). The army consisted of officers like Jagadala, Dandanayaka and Senapathi.

The Kadambas were followers of Vedic Hinduism. The founder, Mayurasharma was a Brahmin by birth but later his successors changed their surname to Varma to indicate their Kshatriya status. Some Kadamba kings like Krishna Varma performed the horse sacrifice (Ashwamedha). Their Talagunda inscription starts with an invocation of Lord Shiva while the Halmidi and Banavasi inscriptions start with an invocation of Lord Vishnu. They built the Madhukesvara temple which is considered their family deity. Many records like the Kudalur, Sirsi records speak of grants made by them to scholarly Brahmins. Grants were also made to Buddhist viharas.

The Kadambas also patronised Jainism; several of the latter kings adopted the religion, and built numerous Jain Basadis (temples) that are scattered around Banavasi, Belgavi, Mangaluru and Goa. Kings and Queens of the dynasty were renowned for their support of literature, arts and liberal grants to temples and educational institutions. Several descendants are scattered around present day Goa, Belgavi, Mangaluru and Bengaluru. Adikavi Pampa highly spoke of this kingdom in his writings.

Kadamba shikara (tower) with Kalasa (pinnacle) on top, Doddagaddavalli. The contribution of the Kadambas to the architectural heritage of Karnataka is certainly worthy of recognition. The Kadamba style can be identified and that it has a few things in common with the Chalukya and the Pallava styles. The most prominent feature of their architecture, basic as it was is their Shikara called Kadamba Shikara. The Shikara is pyramid shaped and rises in steps without any decoration with a Stupika or Kalasha at the top. This style of Shikara are used several centuries later in the Doddagaddavalli Hoysala temple and the Mahakuta temples in Hampi. Some of their temples also use perforated screen windows. It has also been pointed out that in architecture and sculpture, the Kadambas contributed to the foundation of the later Chalukya-Hoysala style.

The Madhukeshwara (Lord Shiva) temple built by them still exists in Banavasi. Built in 10th century and renovated many times, the temple is a very good piece of art. The stone cot with wonderful carvings is one of the main tourist attractions in the temple.

SUPERSTITIONS OR DEFINITE SCIENTIFIC THEORIES[part 8]?

18)Tying Mango and Neem Leaves to the doors on auspicious days

Possible Reason: The general reason given for this act is that tying mango and neem leaves would not allow the evil powers to enter the house.

Scientific Reason: On auspicious days and on special occasions, all of us gather at one place along with our relatives and friends. Photosynthesis is a process where in plants take in carbon-di-oxide and give out oxygen. This process helps in circulation of oxygen and in turn keeps the room temperature at an optimum level. Mango leaves and neem leaves are very effective in the photosynthesis process comparative to other plants. Neem leaves purify the bacteria too. In order to keep the temperature cool and to circulate air, we tie mango leaves and neem leaves to all the doors.

 
19)Why apply turmeric paste to their foot and legs.

Possible Reason: The general reason that is given for turmeric application is that it is a to be done act by women.

Scientific Reason: Women traditionally used to perform many household duties which involved bringing water from the river, cleaning the house with water, washing clothes, and cooking. Most of the houses were made of mud and clay which were soaked in water at regular intervals for cleaning purposes. All these activities required women step into/on water. In order to prevent their feet and legs from the bacterial and fungus infections; they were advised to apply turmeric paste to their legs. In today’s medicine we all know that turmeric is an very good antiseptic agent. Our forefathers knew this too and therefore they used turmeric extensively in their day to day lives.

Taking cue from the last post…

It may appear to many that, up to partition, Gandhi’s policy of nonviolence and Muslim appeasement in the name of secularism indeed harmed the country a lot. But a close look will reveal, it has done severe damage even after partition, or to speak the truth, it is causing serious damage even today. During independence, the Muslim population in undivided India was 23 per cent and this 23 per cent Muslims, got 32 per cent land area as Pakistan. The most appropriate step after partition was to carry out population exchange, or send the entire Muslim population of the divided India to Pakistan and bring all Hindus and other non-Muslims from Pakistan to India. This population transfer was included in the proposal for Pakistan by the Muslim League and after communal riot in Bihar, M A Jinnah requested the Government of India to carry out the said population exchange as early as possible. But Gandhi was hell bent not to undertake the process and said that it was an impractical and fictitious proposal.

Mount Batten, the then Governor General of India, was a staunch supporter of the said population exchange and advised Jawaharlal Nehru to do the same without delay. But Nehru submitted to the will of Gandhi and refrained from doing so. It is needless to say that, from the practical point of view, the said population exchange was urgently necessary and had it been carried out at that time, many problems of today would not have arisen. But due to the policy of Muslim appeasement of Gandhi, Muslims happily stayed back in this country, while Hindus had no alternative but to come to India as refugees or penniless beggars.

Many of us perhaps do not know that due to strong opposition by Gandhi, “Bande Mataram” could not be accepted as the National Anthem” of this country. In his early life, Gandhi had a great affinity for the song and while he was in South Africa, he wrote “It is nobler in sentiment and sweeter than the songs of other nations. While other anthems contain sentiments that are derogatory to others, Bande Mataram is quite free from such faults. Its only aim is to arouse in us a sense of patriotism. It regards India as the mother and sings her praise.” But later on when he could discover that the Muslims dislike the song, he at once stopped singing or reciting the same at public places. Hence ultimately the “Jana Mana Gana” was selected as the National Anthem. During the debate over the matter in the Constituent Assembly, Nehru argued that Bande Mataram is not suitable to sing along with military band while Jana Gana Mana is free from this difficulty.

In the present context, it should also be pointed out that Gandhi was not pleased with Tri Color, the National Flag of today’s India because the Muslims disliked the same. In this regard, Sri Nathuram Godse has narrated an incident in his “Why I Assassinated Gandhi”, which deserves to be noted in this context. During his Noakhali tour in 1946, a Congress worker put a tricolor over the temporary house where Gandhi was staying. One day an ordinary Muslim passer by objected to it and Gandhi immediately ordered his men to bring flag down. So, to please an ordinary Muslim, Gandhi did not hesitate to disgrace and dishonor the flag revered by millions of Congress workers. (pp-75-76).

It should also be pointed out here that in his early life, Gahdhi was very fond of the Hindi language and used to say that it was the only language having the potentiality to play the role of the national language. But to please the Muslim, he, later on tried his best to make Urdu, under the garb of Hindustani, the National Language of independent India.

A few months before the partition, when Hindu and Sikh refugees started to come from West Punjab in droves and crowding the refugee camps of Delhi, one day Gandhi visited a refugee camp and said, “Hindus should never be angry against the Muslims even if the latter might make up their minds to undo their (Hindus’) existence. If they put all of us to the sword, we should court death bravely. … We are destined to be born and die, then why need we feel gloomy over it?” (speech delivered on April 6, 1947).

In a similar occasion he said, “The few gentlemen from Rawalpindi who called upon me, asked me, “What about those who still remain in Pakistan?” I asked, why they all came here (Delhi)? Why they did not die there? I still hold on to the belief that we should stick to the place where we happen to live, even if we are cruelly treated, and even killed. Let us die if the people kill us, but we should die bravely with the name of God on our tongue.” He also said, “Even if our men are killed, why should we feel angry with anybody? You should realize that even if they are killed, they have had a good and proper end” (speech delivered on November 23, 1947)

In this context, Gandhi also said, “If those killed have died bravely, they have not lost anything but earned something. … They should not be afraid of death. After all, the killers will be none other than our Muslim brothers.” (Shri Nathuram Godse, Why I Assassinated Gandhi, p-92,93; as quoted by Koenrad Elst in Gandhi versus Godse, Voice of India, p-121). In another occasion when he was talking to a group of refugees, said, “If all the Punjabis were to die to the last man without killing (a single Muslim), Punjab will be immortal. Offer yourselves as nonviolent willing sacrifices.” (Collins and Lapierre, Freedom at Midnight, p-385). There is no doubt that if someone reads all these utterances of Gandhi, he would take him either a fool or a lunatic, but it is a shame that we are worshiping him as a Mahatma or a Great Soul.

Gandhi believed that Muslims were brothers of the Hindus and hence they should never take arms or wage a war against the Muslims. He used to say that the foreign policy of independent India should always be respectful to Islam and the Muslims. Moreover, independent India should never invade a Muslim country like Arabia, Turkey etc. Gandhi also said that Rana Pratap, Guru Govinda Singh, Raja Ranjit Singh and Raja Shivaji were misguided patriots because they fought war with the Muslims. In his eyes Goerge Washington, Garibaldi, Kamal Pasha, D Valera, Lenin etc. were also misguided patriots as they encouraged violence.

Gandhi’s utterances painting respected Hindu heroes as misguided patriots aroused widespread commotion among the Hindus. Most importantly, calling Raja Shivaji a misguided patriots put entire Maharastra on boil. Later on, Nehru could pacify their anger partially by begging apology on behalf of Gandhi.

The Muslims whenever attack a Hindu settlement, they, in addition killing innocent people, setting their houses on fire, loot and burglary as their routine work, rape Hindu women. It is evident that, they commit all such oppressions according to the instructions of the Koran, revealed by Allah. During the Muslim rule that lasted for nearly 800 years, raping Hindu women became a common affair. To save their honour and sanctity from the lecherous Muslims, millions of Hindu women used to sacrific their lives in flames. In the wake of partition most of the Hindu families became victims of Muslim oppression and raping Hindu women was an inseparable part of their attacks. When Hindus were butchered in Noakhali in 1946, thousands of Hindu women were raped by the Muslims.

Many Hindus of this country do not know, what Gandhi, the Great Soul and the Apostle of nonviolence, thought about this behavior of the Muslims. In the 6th July, 1926, edition of the Navajivan, Gandhi wrote that “He would kiss the feet of the (Muslim) violator of the modesty of a sister” (Mahatma Gandhi, D Keer, Popular Prakashan, p-473). Just before the partition, both Hindu and Sikh women were being raped by the Muslims in large numbers in Punjab. Gandhi advised them that if a Muslim expressed his desire to rape a Hindu or a Sikh lady, she should never refuse him but cooperate with him. She should lie down like a dead with her tongue in between her teeth. (D Lapierre and L Collins, Freedom at Midnight, Vikas, 1997, p-479).

From the above narrations, it becomes evident that Gandhi was never moved by the sufferings and miseries of the Hindus and, on the contrary, he used to shed tears for the Muslims. His idea of Hindu-Muslim amity was also extremely biased and prejudiced. Only Hindus are supposed to make all sacrifices for it and they should endure all the oppressions and heinous crimes of the Muslims without protest. And that was the basis of Gandhian nonviolence and secularism. So a Muslim called Khlifa Haji Mehmud of Lurwani, Sind, once said “Gandhi was really a Mohammedan” (D Keer, ibid, p-237).

pic: Maharaja Ranjit Singh

Aurangezeb’s reign was a signal for revolts and rebellions in several parts of the country. In distant parts of the empire commenced an era of lawlessness, anarchy and disorder. Many states became independent under their subedhars who founded new independent states. A reign of disorder also started in Kashmir. The Moghul Governors began to loot and plunder the people, and at the same time ruthlessly started a policy of religious bigotry and fanaticism. There was absolute chaos in northern India after the invasion of Nadir Shah of Persia. The people of Kashmir could no longer tolerate the misrule of Moghul satraps, and accordingly when Ahmad Shah Abdali of Kabul was at Lahore in 1752, two Kashmir nobleman Mir Muquim Kant and Khwaj’a Zahir Didmari, waited upon him at Lahore, and disgracefully requested him to bring Kashmir under his control.

Afgan Rule : 1752 – 1819:-

Ahmad Shah, a free hooter of Nadir Shah gladly accepted this offer and immediately despatched a strong and a powerful Afgan army under the command of Abdullah Khan lshik Aqasi, to occupy the valley. The Moghul satrap offered a strong resistance, but was defeated and the Afgan Governor planted the Afgan flag on the ramparts of Akbar’s town at Nogar. The rule of Moghuls in Kasmir came to an end although it continued to exist in northern India, nominally upto 1857. Kashmir remained a dependency of Kabul rulers till 1819, roughly a period of 67 years.
The Pathan rule is the darkest period in the history of our state. The rulers of Kabul were great despots, and they ruled all the parts of their kingdom ruthlessly and with an iron hand. The corner stone of their policy was terror. As many as twenty eight Durrani Subedars governed Kashmir during these sixty seven years. The Kashmir nobleman had expected that Abdali would give them a good and a stable government, but the very first Afgan governor Abdullah Khan Aquasi, immediately after assuming powers started a reign of terror. People began to be looted and killed indiscriminately, and even the petty Afgan soliders began to amass wealth by the foulest possible means. Most of the well to do people of the valley were summoned by the Governor to his palace, and ordered to surrender all their wealth on pain of death. Their houses were completey sacked, and many people were put to sword. There was complete gloom and despair on every side. All the prosperity of the valley was gone, and the people could not even move on the streets, for fear of being robbed of even their scanty clothing. Each and everyday for a Kashmiri was a day of struggle and uncertainty. As ill luck would have it, only weak and worthless Amirs governed Kabul, after the death of Abdali. These Amirs would either be quickly deposed or assassinated. Naturally accession of every new Amir would mean appointment of a new Subedar in Kashmir. Hence every Governor expected his recall or dismissal at any time. This unertainty made these rapacious governors ruthless, and they squeezed every penny from the people mercilessly.

It is true, that all sections of people suffered here during their time, but the chief vicitims of these fiends were the Hindus, Shias and Bombas of Jhelum valley.

It is strange that during this dark period a Hindu also became a Governor here. His name was Raja Sukh Jeevan Mal. It was only in his time that Kashmir heaved a sigh of relief. He was afterwards defeated and killed by Ahmad Shah. The Pathan rulers are now only rememberd for their brutality and cruelity, and it is said of them that they thought no more of cutting off heads than plucking a flower.

Sikh Rule: 1819-46:-

At last the reign of terror broke the patience of the peace loving people, and a deputation of Kashmiris led by Pandit Birbal Dhar, and his son Pandit Rajakak Dhar, left for Lahore and fervently requested Maharaja Ranjit Singh to conquer Kashmir. Three prominent Muslims helped Pandit Birbal Dhar in his escape from the valley. They were Abdul Qadoos Gojwari, Mallick Zulfiqar and Malik Kamgar. In 1819, 30,000 soliders of Maharaja Ranjit Singh attacked Kashmir, defeated the Pathans, and the state became a part of Ranjit Singh’s empire. On receipt of the news ,Maharaja Ranjit Singh bestowed honours in Dhar family and Lahore was illuminated for three days, Sikh rule lasted for only 27 years and during this period 10 Governors administersd the country one after another, out of whom the last two were Muslims. In the beginning Sikh rule also proved to be oppressive. “ It must have been an intense relief ”, writes Lawrence, “ to all classes in Kashmir to see the downfall of the evil rule of Pathan, and to none was the relief greater than to the peasants who had been cruely fleeced by the rapacious sardars of Kabul. I do not mean to suggest that the Sikh rule was benign or good, but it was at any rate better that that of the Pathans. ” The Sikh rule over Kashmir lasted only for a brief span of time, during which the rulers at Lahore were far too pre-occupied at home to pay any attention to the affairs of this outlying province of theirs. The misery of the people increased due to natural calamities as well, such as premature snow falls, which would destroy a ripe rice crop leading to famines. These famines were followed by diseases like cholera and plague, resulting in a heavy loss of life. Thousands of people migrated to India during these hard days, and no wonder the population of the valley came down to two lakhs from 8 lakhs.
Mr. Ranel Tayler who visited Kashmir in 1846 writes about Kashmir, “The town presents a very miserable apperance. The houses made of wood are tumbling in every direction. The streets are filthy for want of drainage, none of the bazars looked wellfilled and prospseous and altogether my ride made me very unhappy ”. Moorcraft who visited the valley in 1835 writes, “Everywhere the people were in most abject condition, not one sixteenth of the cultivable land is under cultivation, and the inhabitants are starving. They were in a condition of extreme weakness. Villages were half deserted and those who lived there were the semblance of extreme sickness. Villages were filthy and swarming with beggars. The rural folk on the whole were half naked and miserably emaciated and presented a ghastly picture of poverty and starvation ”. Such was the general condition of the state when Maharaja Ranjit Singh died in 1830. His death was a signal for the mutiny of Sikh Army which become uncontrollable, and plunge entire Punjab into confusion and chaos.

more on this will continue in the next post!!

Continuing the posts on naxalites…Here is Govt’s countermeasures:

Modernisations of State Police:-
Government has released an amount of Rs 3677.67 crore to the Naxal affected states viz. Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Uttarakhand, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. Within this, Rs133 crore were provided to the Naxal affected states for demining units, sophisticated weaponry and the latest telecommunication equipment.

Inter-State Joint Anti-Naxal Operations:-

The menace of Naxalism is an inter-state problem. Naxalites operate without any  hindrance of political and physical boundaries. In order to overcome the problem of inter-state movements by security forces, joint operations by the Special Police Units
of the neighbouring states were required to be institutionalised, which has since been done in the form of “Operation Green Hunt”. This is a well coordinated joint operation by the state police forces, adequately supported by the central forces, less army. In addition to this, air support is being given to the states and hiring charges for helicopters are also being reimbursed by the central government .

Long-Term Deployment of Central Paramilitary Forces:-
In order to supplement the efforts of the states in providing an effective response to the Naxal violence, 40 battalions of the Central Paramilitary Forces have been deployed on a long-term basis, as requested by the affected states. The central government had also exempted the states from the payment of the cost of deployment of these forces for a period of three years from July 1,
2004, involving an amount of nearly Rs. 1,100 crore. In addition, as many as 52 companies of the Provincial Armed Constabulary (PAC) have been trained to carry out anti-Naxal tasks.

Deployment of Seema Suraksha Bal (SSB) Along Indo-Nepal Border.

Protection of Railway Infrastructure:-
Generally, the Naxalite groups target properties. Hence, the Naxal affected states have been asked to set up credible mechanisms to enable effective coordination on the ground among the Railway Protection Force (RPF), Government Railway Police (GRP), local police and intelligence agencies to ensure the protection and safety of railway passengers, railway tracks and other railway properties.

Backward Districts Initiative (BDI):-
Since the Naxalite threat has to be seen on the developmental front also, the central government has provided financial assistance of Rs. 2,475 crore for 55 Naxal affected districts in the 9 states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal under the
BDI component of the Rashtriya Sam Vikas Yojana (RSVY).
 The Planning Commission has been requested to include other Naxal affected areas under their proposed Scheme of Backward Regions Grant Funds (BRGF)for which there has been an outlay of Rs. 5,000 crore from fiscal year 2005-06 onwards.

Tribal and Forest Related Issues:-
In order to address the areas of disaffection among the tribals, the government introduced the Scheduled Tribes (Recognition of Forest Rights) Bill, 2005, in Parliament on December 13, 2005. Further, to facilitate social and physical infrastructure in the forest areas, the Ministry of Environment and Forests, issued general approval to
allow such infrastructure by utilising up to one hectare of forest land for non-forest purposes. In August 2010, the government had decided to take the following actions: Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation Act) was recommended to empowered Groups of Ministers; reduce rising protest against mining as no development is likely to take place; companies
to share the equity/profit with the locals; payment of environmental levy; companies to shell out 26 percent of their equity; and individuals to share 26 percent of their profit.

More on this coming up on the next post…!